Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

What did Indians find impressive about the USSR?

Both Shaukat Usmani (1920) and Rabindranath Tagore (1930) were deeply impressed by the following aspects of Soviet Russia:

1. Equality and absence of racial/caste discrimination: Usmani was struck by the fact that Europeans (Russians) mixed freely with Asians without any sense of racial superiority. He called it 'a land of real equality.' This was remarkable for an Indian accustomed to British colonial racism.

2. Upliftment of the common people: Tagore observed that the workers and peasants — who had lived 'in the background for ages' — had now come to the forefront. The masses were no longer overshadowed by the elite ('gentlemen').

3. Removal of ignorance and poverty in a short time: Tagore was astonished that within a decade, people who were 'as illiterate, helpless and hungry' as Indian masses had been transformed. He compared it to the work of a genie from the Arabian Nights.

4. Confidence and fearlessness among ordinary people: Usmani noted that the revolution had instilled confidence in the people. Even workers, peasants and soldiers could speak like professional orators.

5. Brotherhood among diverse nationalities: Usmani was impressed that people of fifty different nationalities lived together without barriers of caste or religion.

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What did the writers fail to notice?

1. Political repression and lack of freedom: Both writers failed to notice (or chose not to mention) that the Soviet state under Lenin and later Stalin was becoming increasingly authoritarian. Political opponents were suppressed, and there was no multi-party democracy.

2. Forced labour and the Gulags: The Soviet system used forced labour camps (Gulags) where millions of people — including political prisoners — were sent. Neither writer commented on this.

3. Famine and food shortages: While Usmani acknowledged 'poverty imposed by counter-revolutionaries and imperialists,' neither writer critically examined the internal causes of food shortages or the suffering caused by Bolshevik grain requisitioning policies.

4. Suppression of peasants (Kulaks): The violent collectivisation drive and the destruction of the kulak class — which caused immense suffering — was not noticed or discussed.

5. Propaganda and stage-managed visits: Foreign visitors were often shown only the positive aspects of Soviet life. The writers may have been seeing a carefully managed image rather than the full reality.

Conclusion: Both Indians were viewing the USSR through the lens of their own colonial experience. What impressed them most — racial equality, upliftment of the poor, removal of caste-like barriers — were precisely the things denied to them under British rule. Their admiration was genuine but selective.

Sample Defence Speech of a Striking Worker, 1905

*Your Honour,*

I stand before this court not as a criminal, but as a man driven to desperation by years of suffering and injustice. I am a factory worker. I work for twelve to fifteen hours a day in conditions that no human being should endure — dark, suffocating workshops, dangerous machinery, and wages so meagre that my family goes to bed hungry.

We did not take to the streets out of hatred for our country. We marched peacefully to present our grievances to the Tsar — our own father, as we believed him to be. We asked for an eight-hour working day, a living wage, and the right to form trade unions. Is this rebellion? Is asking for dignity a crime?

When the soldiers fired upon us on Bloody Sunday — upon unarmed men, women and children — we realised that our voices would never be heard through petitions alone. The strike that followed was not an act of treason. It was the cry of a people who had no other way to be heard.

Your Honour, I ask you: what choice did we have? We had no vote, no parliament to represent us, no free press to speak for us. The Tsar's government has taken everything from us — our time, our health, our children's futures. We took nothing from anyone. We only stopped our labour.

If standing up for the right to live with dignity is a crime, then I am guilty. But history will judge who the true criminals are — those who asked for bread, or those who gave them bullets.

I rest my case.

(a) A Conservative Paper in France

Headline: *CHAOS IN PETROGRAD — BOLSHEVIK MOB SEIZES POWER; RUSSIA DESCENDS INTO ANARCHY*

News Item: Petrograd, 25 October 1917 — In a shocking and violent coup, the Bolshevik faction led by the dangerous radical Vladimir Lenin has overthrown the legitimate Provisional Government of Russia. Armed workers and soldiers stormed the Winter Palace last night, arresting ministers and seizing control of key installations. This lawless takeover threatens to pull Russia out of the war against Germany, betraying our alliance and endangering all of Europe. Civilised nations must stand firm against this tide of Bolshevik extremism that threatens the very foundations of order, property and Christian civilisation.

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(b) A Radical Newspaper in Britain

Headline: *WORKERS TAKE POWER IN RUSSIA — BOLSHEVIKS OVERTHROW PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT IN HISTORIC UPRISING*

News Item: Petrograd, 25 October 1917 — In what may prove to be the most significant event of our century, the Bolshevik Party of Russia has led the workers and soldiers of Petrograd in a successful uprising against the Provisional Government. The Military Revolutionary Committee, acting under the leadership of Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin, seized the telegraph offices, railway stations and the Winter Palace with minimal bloodshed. Lenin has promised 'Peace, Land and Bread' to the long-suffering Russian people. Whether this revolution will inspire the working classes of Europe remains to be seen, but the world will never be the same again.

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(c) A Bolshevik Newspaper in Russia

Headline: *VICTORY! THE SOVIETS HAVE SEIZED POWER — THE REVOLUTION OF THE WORKERS AND PEASANTS IS TRIUMPHANT!*

News Item: Petrograd, 25 October 1917 — Comrades! The great day has arrived! The Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, acting in the name of the workers, soldiers and peasants of all Russia, has overthrown the bourgeois Provisional Government. The Winter Palace has been taken. The ministers of the capitalists and landlords are under arrest. All power now passes to the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies! Comrade Lenin has returned to lead our revolution to final victory. The war will end, land will be given to the peasants, and the factories will belong to the workers. The age of exploitation is over. Long live the Socialist Revolution! Long live Soviet Power!

Letter from a Middle-Level Wheat Farmer to Stalin

*To Comrade Stalin,*
*General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union*

Dear Comrade Stalin,

I write to you with a heavy heart and trembling hands, for I fear what may happen to me for speaking the truth. But the suffering of my family and my neighbours compels me to write.

I am a wheat farmer from the Volga region. Before collectivisation, my family worked hard on our small plot of land. We grew enough to feed ourselves and sell a little surplus. We were not rich kulaks — we owned no more than a few acres and a pair of horses. We were ordinary peasants who loved our land.

Since collectivisation began, our lives have been destroyed. Our land, our horses, our tools — everything has been taken and merged into the collective farm (kolkhoz). We are now told what to grow, how much to grow, and how much we may keep. The grain quotas set by the state are so high that after we hand over our harvest, there is nothing left for us to eat. Last winter, three children in our village died of hunger.

Comrade Stalin, we are not enemies of the revolution. We do not wish to hoard grain or exploit others. We only wish to feed our families. The collective farm is managed poorly — nobody works with the same care they gave to their own land, because nobody owns anything anymore. The harvest is smaller than before, yet the state demands more.

I beg you, Comrade Stalin, to reconsider these policies. Allow us to keep a small private plot. Reduce the grain quotas. Let us live.

Your humble servant,
Ivan Petrov, Wheat Farmer

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Stalin's Likely Response:

Stalin would almost certainly have dismissed such a letter as the complaint of a 'kulak sympathiser' or a 'class enemy.' His response would likely have been:

1. Ideological rejection: Stalin believed collectivisation was scientifically necessary for socialist construction and industrialisation. He would have accused the farmer of putting personal interest above the needs of the state and the working class.

2. Labelling as a kulak: Any farmer who resisted or complained about collectivisation was branded a 'kulak' (rich peasant and class enemy), regardless of their actual wealth.

3. Repression: Such a letter could have led to the farmer's arrest, deportation to a labour camp (Gulag), or even execution. During the early 1930s, millions of peasants who resisted collectivisation were deported or killed.

4. No policy change: Stalin would not have changed the policy. In fact, he intensified collectivisation and grain procurement even during the famine of 1932–33, which killed millions in Ukraine and other regions.

In short, the farmer's honest letter would most likely have sealed his tragic fate.

Social, Economic and Political Conditions in Russia before 1905:

Political Conditions:
- Russia was ruled by the Tsar (Emperor) under an autocratic system. Tsar Nicholas II held absolute power and believed he ruled by divine right.
- There was no elected parliament or representative government. The people had no say in governance.
- Political parties were banned or severely restricted. There was no freedom of speech or press.
- The secret police (Okhrana) suppressed all opposition.

Social Conditions:
- Russian society was deeply unequal and hierarchical. The nobility and the Orthodox Church owned vast amounts of land and enjoyed great privileges.
- The majority of the population were peasants who lived in extreme poverty. They had been serfs (bonded labourers) until 1861, but even after emancipation, they remained poor and landless.
- Workers in cities lived in overcrowded, unhygienic conditions. They worked 12–15 hours a day for very low wages.
- Women had very few rights and were largely confined to domestic roles, though many worked in factories.
- There was widespread illiteracy among the peasantry.

Economic Conditions:
- Russia was predominantly agricultural. Most people depended on farming, but land was concentrated in the hands of the nobility.
- Industrialisation had begun in the 1890s, but it was uneven and concentrated in a few cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow.
- Workers faced poor wages, long working hours, and dangerous conditions in factories.
- There were frequent famines due to backward agricultural methods and unequal land distribution.
- Russia was economically backward compared to Western Europe. It lacked modern infrastructure and technology.

Conclusion: These conditions created deep resentment among peasants, workers and the educated middle class, setting the stage for the revolution of 1905.

Ways in which the Working Population in Russia was Different from other European Countries before 1917:

1. Composition of the Working Class:
- In most of Western Europe, the working class was primarily an industrial proletariat — factory workers who had been separated from the land for generations.
- In Russia, the working class was closely linked to the peasantry. Many factory workers had recently migrated from villages and still maintained ties to their rural communities. They often returned to villages during harvest time.

2. Size and Concentration:
- Russia's industrial working class was smaller in proportion to the total population compared to Britain, France or Germany, because Russia was less industrialised.
- However, Russian workers were highly concentrated in a few large factories in cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow. This made them easier to organise and mobilise.

3. Living and Working Conditions:
- Russian workers faced extremely harsh conditions — longer working hours (12–15 hours a day), lower wages, and more dangerous workplaces than workers in Western Europe.
- They lived in overcrowded barracks near factories, often without basic sanitation.

4. Legal Rights:
- In Western Europe, workers had gradually won the right to form trade unions and go on strike.
- In Russia, trade unions were banned or severely restricted before 1905. Workers had no legal means to negotiate with employers.

5. Political Rights:
- Workers in countries like Britain and France had some voting rights and could influence government through elections.
- Russian workers had no political rights whatsoever under the Tsarist autocracy.

6. Diversity:
- The Russian working population included not just factory workers but also peasants, artisans, and domestic servants, all of whom faced exploitation.
- There were also significant ethnic and religious minorities among the working population.

Conclusion: The Russian working class was unique in being simultaneously a peasant class and an industrial class, politically oppressed, legally unprotected, and concentrated in ways that made collective action both necessary and possible.

Reasons for the Collapse of the Tsarist Autocracy in 1917:

The Tsarist autocracy collapsed in February 1917 due to a combination of long-term weaknesses and immediate crises:

1. Impact of the First World War (1914–1917):
- Russia's involvement in World War I proved catastrophic. The Russian army suffered massive defeats against Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- By 1917, approximately 7 million soldiers had been killed, wounded or taken prisoner.
- The war caused severe food and fuel shortages in cities. Supply lines broke down, and bread prices soared.
- Soldiers were poorly equipped and demoralised. Many deserted or refused to fight.

2. Economic Crisis:
- The war disrupted the economy. Factories closed, unemployment rose, and inflation made basic goods unaffordable.
- In Petrograd (St. Petersburg), workers faced bread shortages and long queues. This led to widespread anger.

3. Political Incompetence of Tsar Nicholas II:
- Tsar Nicholas II was a weak and indecisive ruler who refused to share power or introduce meaningful reforms.
- He dismissed the Duma (parliament) when it tried to advise him and insisted on ruling alone.
- He took personal command of the army in 1915, which meant that military failures were now directly blamed on him.

4. Influence of Rasputin:
- The Tsarina Alexandra came under the influence of Grigori Rasputin, a mystic who was widely distrusted.
- Rasputin's influence over government appointments damaged the credibility of the royal family.

5. Growing Opposition:
- Workers went on strike demanding better wages and conditions.
- Peasants demanded land redistribution.
- Liberals and socialists demanded a constitutional government.
- Even nobles and military officers had lost faith in the Tsar.

6. The February Revolution (1917):
- In February 1917, a series of strikes and demonstrations broke out in Petrograd over food shortages.
- When the Tsar ordered the army to suppress the protests, soldiers refused to fire on the crowds and joined the revolution instead.
- The Duma refused to dissolve and set up a Provisional Government.
- Faced with no support from the army or the Duma, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March 1917, ending 300 years of Romanov rule.

Conclusion: The Tsarist autocracy collapsed because it was unable to manage the pressures of modern warfare, economic crisis, and popular demands for political reform. The war was the immediate trigger, but the deeper cause was the fundamental inability of the autocratic system to adapt to the needs of the twentieth century.

List 1: The February Revolution (1917)

| Main Events | Effects |
|---|---|
| Strikes and bread riots in Petrograd (February 1917) | Widespread popular unrest against the Tsar |
| Soldiers refuse to fire on protesters and join the revolution | The army, the Tsar's main support, deserts him |
| The Duma refuses to dissolve | A parallel centre of power emerges |
| Tsar Nicholas II abdicates (2 March 1917) | End of 300 years of Romanov/Tsarist rule |
| Formation of the Provisional Government | A liberal government takes charge |
| Formation of the Petrograd Soviet | Workers and soldiers gain a representative body |

List 2: The October Revolution (1917)

| Main Events | Effects |
|---|---|
| Lenin returns to Russia and issues the 'April Theses' | Bolsheviks adopt the slogan 'Peace, Land, Bread' |
| Bolsheviks win majority in Soviets (September 1917) | Bolsheviks gain popular support |
| Military Revolutionary Committee formed under Trotsky | Armed uprising is planned and organised |
| Bolsheviks seize key installations in Petrograd (24 October 1917) | Provisional Government is overthrown |
| Winter Palace stormed; ministers arrested (25 October) | Bolsheviks take full control of the government |
| Second Congress of Soviets approves Bolshevik takeover | Soviet government is formally established |
| Decree on Peace and Decree on Land issued | War ended; land redistributed to peasants |

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Paragraph on the February Revolution:

The February Revolution of 1917 was a spontaneous, popular uprising involving workers, women, soldiers and ordinary citizens of Petrograd. It was not led by any single party or leader — it arose from the unbearable conditions created by World War I, food shortages and the failures of the Tsarist government. The key figures who emerged from it were liberal politicians like Alexander Kerensky, who led the Provisional Government, and the leaders of the Petrograd Soviet. The impact on Soviet history was enormous: it ended the Romanov dynasty and Tsarist autocracy, which had ruled Russia for three centuries. However, the Provisional Government's decision to continue the war and delay land reform meant that the revolution remained incomplete, creating the conditions for the October Revolution.

Paragraph on the October Revolution:

The October Revolution of 1917 was a planned, organised seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party. The key leaders were Vladimir Lenin, who provided the ideological direction and political will, and Leon Trotsky, who organised the Military Revolutionary Committee that carried out the actual uprising. The participants were primarily Bolshevik party members, Red Guards (armed workers), and soldiers of the Petrograd garrison. The impact on Soviet history was transformative and long-lasting: it established the world's first socialist state, led to the withdrawal from World War I (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918), redistributed land to peasants, nationalised industries, and set Russia on the path to becoming the Soviet Union. It also triggered a brutal Civil War (1918–1921) and shaped the entire course of twentieth-century world history.

Main Changes Brought About by the Bolsheviks Immediately after the October Revolution:

1. Decree on Peace:
- The Bolsheviks immediately issued a Decree on Peace, calling for an end to World War I.
- Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, withdrawing from the war. Russia lost significant territory but gained peace.

2. Decree on Land:
- The Decree on Land abolished private ownership of land.
- Land belonging to the Tsar, the nobility and the Church was confiscated without compensation and redistributed to peasant committees.
- Peasants were allowed to seize the estates of the landlords.

3. Nationalisation of Banks and Industries:
- Banks were nationalised (taken over by the state).
- Factories were placed under the control of workers' committees.
- Large industries, mines and railways were nationalised.

4. Abolition of Social Titles and Privileges:
- All social ranks and titles (nobility, clergy, etc.) were abolished.
- Everyone was to be addressed simply as 'citizen' or 'comrade.'
- The privileges of the old ruling class were eliminated.

5. Changes for Workers:
- The working day was limited to 8 hours.
- Workers were given the right to form trade unions.
- Social insurance was introduced for workers.

6. Changes for Women:
- Women were granted equal rights with men.
- Women gained the right to vote and hold public office.

7. Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly:
- When the Constituent Assembly elections (November 1917) did not give the Bolsheviks a majority, Lenin dissolved the Assembly in January 1918, arguing that the Soviets represented the true will of the people.

8. Renaming and Reorganisation:
- The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks).
- Russia was renamed the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).

9. End of the Old Legal System:
- The old Tsarist courts and legal system were abolished and replaced by revolutionary tribunals.

Conclusion: These changes were radical and far-reaching. They dismantled the old social, economic and political order and laid the foundations of a new socialist state, though many of these changes also led to conflict, civil war and further repression.

(i) Kulaks:

Kulaks were relatively prosperous peasants in Russia who owned more land and employed other peasants as labourers. The term literally means 'fist' in Russian, implying a tight-fisted, exploitative person. Under Stalin's collectivisation programme in the late 1920s and 1930s, kulaks were branded as class enemies who hoarded grain and exploited poor peasants. Stalin launched a campaign to 'liquidate the kulaks as a class.' Millions of kulaks were arrested, deported to labour camps (Gulags), or killed. Their land and property were seized and merged into collective farms. The destruction of the kulak class caused enormous suffering and contributed to the famines of the early 1930s.

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(ii) The Duma:

The Duma was the Russian parliament established after the Revolution of 1905. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to create it following the widespread unrest of that year. However, the Duma had very limited powers — the Tsar could dissolve it at will, and he did so several times when it challenged his authority. The Duma represented mainly the propertied classes and was not a truly democratic body. During World War I, the Duma became increasingly critical of the Tsar's mismanagement of the war. In February 1917, when the Tsar ordered it to dissolve, the Duma refused and set up a Provisional Government, which played a key role in the February Revolution.

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(iii) Women Workers between 1900 and 1930:

Women workers played a significant role in the Russian revolutionary period. By 1900, women made up about 31% of the factory workforce in Russia, working in textile mills, tobacco factories and other industries. They were paid less than men for the same work and faced harsh conditions. Women were active participants in the 1905 Revolution and the February Revolution of 1917 — it was women textile workers who began the strikes that triggered the February Revolution. After the Bolshevik Revolution, women were granted equal rights — the right to vote, to divorce, to own property, and to hold public office. Women's participation in the workforce and public life increased significantly during the 1920s. However, in practice, women continued to face discrimination and bore the double burden of work and domestic responsibilities.

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(iv) The Liberals:

The Liberals were a political group in Russia (and across Europe) who believed in individual rights, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and constitutional government. In Russia, they wanted to replace the Tsarist autocracy with a constitutional monarchy or a democratic republic with an elected parliament. They were mainly drawn from the educated middle class — lawyers, doctors, teachers, businessmen and some enlightened nobles. Russian liberals were represented in the Duma and formed the core of the Provisional Government after the February Revolution of 1917. However, they were unwilling to carry out radical land reform or immediately end the war, which made them unpopular with peasants and workers. They were swept aside by the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution.

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(v) Stalin's Collectivisation Programme:

Stalin launched the collectivisation programme in 1929–30 as part of his drive to rapidly industrialise the Soviet Union. Under this programme, all private farms were merged into large collective farms (kolkhozy) owned and managed by the state. Peasants were forced to give up their land, livestock and tools. The programme aimed to:
- Increase agricultural productivity through mechanisation.
- Free up labour for industry.
- Bring the peasantry under state control.
- Eliminate the kulak class.

However, the results were disastrous in the short term. Peasants resisted by slaughtering their livestock rather than handing them over. Agricultural production fell sharply. A terrible famine in 1932–33 killed millions of people, especially in Ukraine. Millions of kulaks were deported or killed. Despite these human costs, Stalin pressed ahead, and by the mid-1930s, most Soviet agriculture had been collectivised. The programme succeeded in providing grain for export to fund industrialisation, but at an enormous human price.