Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire

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About 85 percent of India's population lived in villages during the 16th and 17th centuries. This shows that India was predominantly an agrarian society where most people were involved in agricultural…

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Both 'raiyat' (plural: riaya) and 'muzarian' were Indo-Persian terms used to denote peasants in Mughal period sources. Other terms like 'kisan' and 'asami' were also used. These terms referred to the …

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Khud-kashta were resident cultivators who lived in the same village where they held their lands. Pahi-kashta were non-resident cultivators who belonged to one village but cultivated lands in another v…

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The two major seasonal cycles were Kharif (autumn crop) and Rabi (spring crop). Most regions produced at least two crops a year (do-fasla), while some areas with continuous water supply could produce …

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Jins-i kamil (literally 'perfect crops') were cash crops that brought higher revenue to the state. Examples included cotton, sugarcane, oilseeds, and lentils. The Mughal state encouraged these crops b…

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The village panchayat was an assembly of village elders with hereditary property rights. It was usually heterogeneous in mixed-caste villages but excluded menial workers. Functions included: supervisi…

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The village headman was chosen by village elders and ratified by the zamindar. Key responsibilities included: supervising village accounts with the patwari, overseeing community conduct, ensuring cast…

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The jajmani system was a reciprocal service system where village artisans (potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, barbers) provided specialized services to cultivators in exchange for payment. This could b…