Later Mural Traditions — NCERT Solutions

Given / Context: Badami (in present-day Karnataka) contains rock-cut cave temples dating to the Chalukya period (6th–7th century CE). The paintings found here represent an important phase of early Deccan mural art.

Main Features of Badami Cave Paintings:

1. Historical and Dynastic Context:
The Badami cave paintings were executed under the patronage of the Chalukya rulers. Cave No. 3, dedicated to Vishnu, contains the most significant surviving paintings.

2. Style and Technique:

• The paintings follow the classical Indian mural technique: the rock surface was first prepared with a layer of lime plaster, then pigments were applied.
• The style shows a clear continuity with the Ajanta tradition — figures are rendered with graceful, rounded forms and fluid lines.
• Outlines are bold and confident, and the figures display a sense of volume and three-dimensionality.

3. Subject Matter / Iconography:

• The most celebrated painting depicts Kirtivarman and his queen (a royal court scene), showing the Chalukya king seated in a relaxed posture (lalitasana) surrounded by attendants.
• Other panels depict celestial beings (apsaras), dvarapalas (door guardians), and scenes from Hindu mythology.

4. Colour Palette:

• The artists used natural mineral pigments — red ochre, yellow ochre, white (lime), black (lamp soot), and green.
• Colours are applied in flat washes with shading used to suggest volume.

5. Figure Rendering:

• Human figures are depicted with characteristic Deccan features: broad shoulders, heavy ornamentation, and expressive eyes.
• The treatment of drapery and jewellery is detailed and decorative.

6. Significance:

• Badami paintings serve as a vital link between the Ajanta tradition of the Vakataka–Gupta period and the later Deccan and South Indian mural traditions.
• They demonstrate that a sophisticated painting tradition flourished in the Deccan even after the decline of Ajanta.

Conclusion: The Badami cave paintings are remarkable for their classical elegance, technical mastery, and iconographic richness, representing the high point of early Chalukya artistic achievement.

Given / Context: The Vijayanagara Empire (14th–16th century CE), with its capital at Hampi (Karnataka), was one of the greatest patrons of art and architecture in South India. Vijayanagara paintings represent a distinct and important phase in the history of Indian mural art.

Essay on Vijayanagara Paintings:

1. Historical Background:
The Vijayanagara rulers, particularly those of the Tuluva dynasty (e.g., Krishnadevaraya, early 16th century), were great patrons of literature, music, and the visual arts. Under their patronage, a distinctive style of mural painting developed in the temples of the Deccan and South India.

2. Location and Sites:
Vijayanagara paintings are found primarily on the walls and ceilings of temple mandapas (pillared halls) and corridors. The most important surviving examples are:

• Virupaksha temple, Hampi — ceiling paintings depicting scenes from the life of Shiva, the Mahabharata, and the legend of Vidyaranya.
• Hazara Rama temple, Hampi — narrative friezes.
• Lepakshi temple (Andhra Pradesh) — among the finest examples, with large-scale ceiling paintings depicting episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Shaiva mythology.

3. Technique:

• The paintings were executed in the fresco-secco technique: a dry lime-plaster surface was prepared and pigments were applied with a binding medium.
• Natural mineral and vegetable pigments were used — red and yellow ochre, lamp black, white lime, blue (lapis lazuli or indigo), and green.

4. Style and Composition:

• Figures are depicted in a two-dimensional, flat manner with bold, firm outlines. There is little attempt at perspective or foreshortening.
• Faces are shown in profile (side view) with a prominent, stylised eye — a hallmark of the Vijayanagara style.
• Figures have elongated proportions, narrow waists, and broad shoulders.
• Costumes and jewellery are rendered in great detail, reflecting the courtly splendour of the Vijayanagara period.
• Decorative borders and floral patterns frame the narrative panels.

5. Subject Matter:

• Themes are predominantly drawn from Hindu mythology: the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, and the lives of Shaiva and Vaishnava saints.
• Portraits of royal patrons and donors also appear.
• At Lepakshi, the ceiling painting of Shiva's marriage procession (Shiva Kalyana) is a masterpiece — a large, crowded composition filled with gods, celestial beings, and attendants.

6. Colour and Aesthetic:

• The colour palette is rich and vibrant: deep reds, greens, blacks, and whites dominate.
• Backgrounds are usually painted in a single flat colour (often red or green), making the figures stand out clearly.

7. Influence and Legacy:

• The Vijayanagara style directly influenced later mural traditions of South India, particularly the Nayaka paintings of Tamil Nadu and the Kerala mural tradition.
• It represents the last great phase of classical South Indian mural painting before the advent of the Mughal and European influences.

Conclusion:
Vijayanagara paintings are a glorious chapter in Indian art history. Their bold outlines, vibrant colours, narrative richness, and devotional fervour make them unique. They stand as a testament to the cultural vitality of one of India's greatest medieval empires.