Later Mural Traditions

Given / Context: Badami (in present-day Karnataka) contains rock-cut cave temples dating to the Chalukya period (6th–7th century CE). The paintings found here represent an important phase of early Deccan mural art.

Main Features of Badami Cave Paintings:

1. Historical and Dynastic Context:
The Badami cave paintings were executed under the patronage of the Chalukya rulers. Cave No. 3, dedicated to Vishnu, contains the most significant surviving paintings.

2. Style and Technique:
- The paintings follow the classical Indian mural technique: the rock surface was first prepared with a layer of lime plaster, then pigments were applied.
- The style shows a clear continuity with the Ajanta tradition — figures are rendered with graceful, rounded forms and fluid lines.
- Outlines are bold and confident, and the figures display a sense of volume and three-dimensionality.

3. Subject Matter / Iconography:
- The most celebrated painting depicts Kirtivarman and his queen (a royal court scene), showing the Chalukya king seated in a relaxed posture (*lalitasana*) surrounded by attendants.
- Other panels depict celestial beings (*apsaras*), *dvarapalas* (door guardians), and scenes from Hindu mythology.

4. Colour Palette:
- The artists used natural mineral pigments — red ochre, yellow ochre, white (lime), black (lamp soot), and green.
- Colours are applied in flat washes with shading used to suggest volume.

5. Figure Rendering:
- Human figures are depicted with characteristic Deccan features: broad shoulders, heavy ornamentation, and expressive eyes.
- The treatment of drapery and jewellery is detailed and decorative.

6. Significance:
- Badami paintings serve as a vital link between the Ajanta tradition of the Vakataka–Gupta period and the later Deccan and South Indian mural traditions.
- They demonstrate that a sophisticated painting tradition flourished in the Deccan even after the decline of Ajanta.

Conclusion: The Badami cave paintings are remarkable for their classical elegance, technical mastery, and iconographic richness, representing the high point of early Chalukya artistic achievement.

Given / Context: The Vijayanagara Empire (14th–16th century CE), with its capital at Hampi (Karnataka), was one of the greatest patrons of art and architecture in South India. Vijayanagara paintings represent a distinct and important phase in the history of Indian mural art.

Essay on Vijayanagara Paintings:

1. Historical Background:
The Vijayanagara rulers, particularly those of the Tuluva dynasty (e.g., Krishnadevaraya, early 16th century), were great patrons of literature, music, and the visual arts. Under their patronage, a distinctive style of mural painting developed in the temples of the Deccan and South India.

2. Location and Sites:
Vijayanagara paintings are found primarily on the walls and ceilings of temple mandapas (pillared halls) and corridors. The most important surviving examples are:
- Virupaksha temple, Hampi — ceiling paintings depicting scenes from the life of Shiva, the Mahabharata, and the legend of Vidyaranya.
- Hazara Rama temple, Hampi — narrative friezes.
- Lepakshi temple (Andhra Pradesh) — among the finest examples, with large-scale ceiling paintings depicting episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Shaiva mythology.

3. Technique:
- The paintings were executed in the fresco-secco technique: a dry lime-plaster surface was prepared and pigments were applied with a binding medium.
- Natural mineral and vegetable pigments were used — red and yellow ochre, lamp black, white lime, blue (lapis lazuli or indigo), and green.

4. Style and Composition:
- Figures are depicted in a two-dimensional, flat manner with bold, firm outlines. There is little attempt at perspective or foreshortening.
- Faces are shown in profile (side view) with a prominent, stylised eye — a hallmark of the Vijayanagara style.
- Figures have elongated proportions, narrow waists, and broad shoulders.
- Costumes and jewellery are rendered in great detail, reflecting the courtly splendour of the Vijayanagara period.
- Decorative borders and floral patterns frame the narrative panels.

5. Subject Matter:
- Themes are predominantly drawn from Hindu mythology: the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, and the lives of Shaiva and Vaishnava saints.
- Portraits of royal patrons and donors also appear.
- At Lepakshi, the ceiling painting of Shiva's marriage procession (Shiva Kalyana) is a masterpiece — a large, crowded composition filled with gods, celestial beings, and attendants.

6. Colour and Aesthetic:
- The colour palette is rich and vibrant: deep reds, greens, blacks, and whites dominate.
- Backgrounds are usually painted in a single flat colour (often red or green), making the figures stand out clearly.

7. Influence and Legacy:
- The Vijayanagara style directly influenced later mural traditions of South India, particularly the Nayaka paintings of Tamil Nadu and the Kerala mural tradition.
- It represents the last great phase of classical South Indian mural painting before the advent of the Mughal and European influences.

Conclusion:
Vijayanagara paintings are a glorious chapter in Indian art history. Their bold outlines, vibrant colours, narrative richness, and devotional fervour make them unique. They stand as a testament to the cultural vitality of one of India's greatest medieval empires.

Given / Context: Both Kerala and Tamil Nadu developed rich and distinctive mural painting traditions, rooted in the classical South Indian artistic heritage but each possessing unique stylistic and thematic characteristics.

Mural Traditions of Tamil Nadu:

1. Historical Background:
The mural tradition of Tamil Nadu flourished under the Pallava, Chola, Pandya, and Nayaka dynasties. Paintings were executed on the walls and ceilings of rock-cut and structural temples.

2. Important Sites:
- Sittannavasal (Pudukottai district): Jain rock-cut cave with paintings dating to the Pandya period (7th–9th century CE). The ceiling painting of a lotus pond with figures of men, animals, and birds swimming and gathering lotuses is celebrated for its naturalism and grace.
- Brihadeeswarar temple, Thanjavur: Built by the Chola king Rajaraja I (c. 1010 CE). The circumambulatory passage contains paintings depicting Shiva as Nataraja, the 64 forms of Shiva, and portraits of Rajaraja I with his guru Karuvurar. These are among the finest Chola paintings.
- Nayaka-period paintings are found in temples at Madurai, Kumbakonam, Thiruvarur, and Chidambaram — characterised by crowded compositions, bold outlines, and flat colours.

3. Style:
- Figures are graceful, with fluid lines reminiscent of the Ajanta tradition in early works.
- Later Nayaka paintings show more rigid, stylised figures with profile faces and elaborate costumes.
- Colours used include red, yellow, green, black, and white — all derived from natural sources.

4. Themes:
- Shaiva mythology (especially the life and miracles of Shiva) dominates.
- Vaishnava themes, royal portraits, and scenes from the epics also appear.

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Mural Traditions of Kerala:

1. Historical Background:
Kerala developed one of the most distinctive and well-preserved mural traditions in India, reaching its mature phase between the 15th and 17th centuries CE. The tradition continued into the 18th and 19th centuries.

2. Stylistic Features:
- Kerala murals are characterised by vibrant, luminous colours and a unique treatment of the human figure.
- Figures are depicted with three-dimensionality — a feature that distinguishes Kerala murals from the flat, two-dimensional style of other South Indian traditions.
- The style shows influence from Kalam ezhuthu (ritual floor painting of Kerala), particularly in the use of bold, confident lines and bright colours.
- Faces are shown in three-quarter view (unlike the strict profile of Tamil Nadu), giving figures a more lifelike appearance.
- Eyes are large, almond-shaped, and expressive.
- Costumes and ornaments reflect the local Kerala tradition.

3. Technique:
- Paintings were executed on lime-plastered walls using the fresco-secco method.
- Pigments were derived from natural sources: red from cinnabar, yellow from orpiment, green from plant extracts, black from lamp soot, and white from lime.
- The surface was polished to give the paintings a lustrous finish.

4. Important Sites:
More than sixty sites with mural paintings have been identified in Kerala, including:
- Thirukodithanam, Triprayar Sri Rama temple, Trissur Vadakkunathan temple, Panayanarkavu, Pundareekapuram Krishna temple — representing the mature phase of the tradition.
- Three palaces: Dutch Palace (Mattancherry/Kochi), Krishnapuram Palace (Kayamkulam), and Padmanabhapuram Palace.

5. Themes:
- Themes are drawn from Hindu mythology, particularly episodes popular in Kerala — local versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, stories of Vishnu, Shiva, and Krishna.
- The artists drew from oral traditions and local retellings of the epics, giving the paintings a regional flavour.
- Scenes of Krishna with Gopikas, Shiva's cosmic dance, and episodes from the Bhagavata Purana are common.

6. Significance:
- Kerala murals are among the best-preserved medieval mural traditions in India.
- They represent a synthesis of classical South Indian aesthetics with local Kerala artistic sensibilities.

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Conclusion:
Both Tamil Nadu and Kerala developed magnificent mural traditions that reflect the deep religious devotion, artistic sophistication, and cultural vitality of South India. While Tamil Nadu's tradition is notable for its historical range (from Pallava to Nayaka periods) and its narrative grandeur, Kerala's tradition stands out for its luminous colours, three-dimensional figure treatment, and intimate connection with local mythology and oral traditions. Together, they form an invaluable part of India's artistic heritage.