Temple Architecture and Sculpture — NCERT Solutions

Chosen Styles: Kalinga Style (Odisha) and Chola Style (Tamil Nadu)

1. KALINGA STYLE — Odisha (8th–13th century CE)

Region: Odisha (Bhubaneswar, Puri, Konark)

Patronage: Somavamshi and Ganga dynasty rulers.

Key Features:

• The Kalinga style is a sub-type of the Nagara (North Indian) tradition.
• Deul (Shikhara): The tower over the garbhagriha is called a deul. It is curvilinear and vertical, rising sharply to a point. It is crowned by an amalaka and kalasha.
• Jagamohana: A large, pyramidal-roofed assembly hall (mandapa) in front of the deul, called the jagamohana.
• Natamandira and Bhogamandira: Some temples (like Konark) also have a dance hall (natamandira) and an offering hall (bhogamandira).
• Sculptural Decoration: Walls are covered with intricate carvings of deities, apsaras, mithuna (erotic) figures, animals, and narrative panels.
• Plan: Square plan; the entire temple complex is enclosed within a compound wall.
• Famous Examples:
• Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar
• Jagannatha Temple, Puri
• Sun Temple, Konark (designed as a chariot with 24 wheels)

2. CHOLA STYLE — Tamil Nadu (9th–13th century CE)

Region: Tamil Nadu (Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram)

Patronage: Chola kings (Rajaraja I, Rajendra I).

Key Features:

• The Chola style is a sub-type of the Dravida (South Indian) tradition.
• Vimana: The tower over the garbhagriha is called a vimana. It is pyramidal and stepped, rising in horizontal tiers to a dome-like top (stupi).
• Gopuram: The entrance gateway tower. In early Chola temples, the vimana is taller than the gopuram (later reversed in Vijayanagara period).
• Mandapa: Pillared halls for assembly and worship.
• Prakara: Concentric enclosure walls surrounding the temple complex.
• Temple Tank (Pushkarini): A sacred tank within the enclosure for ritual bathing.
• Sculptural Decoration: Walls adorned with sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, dvarapalas (door guardians), and celestial figures.
• Famous Examples:
• Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur
• Gangaikondacholapuram Temple

COMPARISON TABLE:

LINE DRAWING:

KALINGA STYLE                    CHOLA STYLE
(Odisha)                         (Tamil Nadu)

      *                               *
     /|\                             [_]
    / | \   <-- Amalaka             |   |  <-- Stupi
   /  |  \                          |   |
  / Deul  \  <-- Curvilinear        |   |  <-- Vimana
 /  (Shik-  \     tower             |   |   (pyramidal,
/ hara)      \                      |   |    stepped)
|____________|                      |___|
|            |                      |   |
| Jagamohana |  <-- Pyramidal       |   |  <-- Mandapa
|  (mandapa) |     roof             |___|
|____________|                  ____|   |____
                                |  Prakara  |
                                |___________|
                                      ↑
                                  Gopuram
                               (entrance tower)

Final Answer: The Kalinga style (Nagara sub-type) is characterised by a tall curvilinear deul, a pyramidal jagamohana, and intricate wall sculptures, as seen at Konark and Bhubaneswar. The Chola style (Dravida sub-type) features a stepped pyramidal vimana, a towering gopuram, concentric prakaras, and a temple tank, as seen at Thanjavur. Both represent the highest achievements of their respective regional traditions.

Given: Buddhist art spans over two thousand years and reflects the evolution of Buddhist thought, iconography, and architecture.

Concept: Buddhist art developed in distinct phases, each corresponding to changes in religious doctrine, royal patronage, and regional influences.

PHASE 1: EARLY BUDDHIST ART — Aniconic Period (3rd–1st century BCE)

• After the death (Mahaparinirvana) of the Buddha (c. 483 BCE), his followers did not represent him in human form for several centuries.
• This is called the aniconic phase — the Buddha was represented through symbols:
• Footprints (Buddhapada) — representing his presence
• Wheel (Dharmachakra) — representing the First Sermon at Sarnath
• Bodhi Tree — representing Enlightenment
• Empty Throne — representing his meditation
• Parasol (Chattra) — representing royalty and divinity
• Stupas were built to enshrine the relics of the Buddha. The most famous is the Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh), built originally by Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) and enlarged later.
• Stupa Structure: Anda (hemispherical dome) + Harmika (square railing on top) + Yashti (central mast) + Chatravali (umbrella tiers) + Vedika (railing) + Torana (gateways).
• Toranas at Sanchi (1st century BCE–1st century CE): The four gateways are covered with intricate carvings depicting Jataka tales (previous lives of the Buddha), nature spirits (Yakshas, Yakshinis), and auspicious symbols.
• Bharhut Stupa (Madhya Pradesh): Another important early site with narrative relief sculptures.

PHASE 2: ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE — Chaityas and Viharas (2nd century BCE–7th century CE)

• Buddhist monks began carving monasteries (viharas) and prayer halls (chaityas) out of rock.
• Chaitya: A prayer hall with a stupa at the far end and a barrel-vaulted roof; rows of pillars divide it into a nave and side aisles.
• Vihara: A monastery with a central hall surrounded by small monks' cells.
• Important Sites:
• Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): 29 caves; Phases I (2nd–1st century BCE) and II (5th–6th century CE). Famous for exquisite paintings depicting Jataka tales and the life of the Buddha, and sculptures.
• Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves; Caves 1–12 are Buddhist (5th–7th century CE).
• Karle, Bhaja, Nasik (Maharashtra): Early chaitya halls.

PHASE 3: ICONIC PHASE — Human Representation of the Buddha (1st–3rd century CE)

• The Kushana period saw the first human images of the Buddha, emerging simultaneously in two schools:

A. Gandhara School (Northwest India — modern Pakistan/Afghanistan):

• Influenced by Greco-Roman art (due to Alexander's conquests).
• Buddha shown with wavy hair, toga-like robes, realistic musculature, and a halo.
• Material: Grey schist stone.
• Features: Aquiline nose, deep-set eyes, naturalistic drapery.

B. Mathura School (Uttar Pradesh):

• Indigenous Indian tradition.
• Buddha shown with shaved head or thin curls, transparent clinging robes, and a bold, powerful physique.
• Material: Spotted red sandstone from Sikri.
• Features: Broad shoulders, serene smile, ushnisha (cranial protuberance), urna (dot between eyebrows).

PHASE 4: GUPTA PERIOD — Classical Synthesis (4th–6th century CE)

• The Gupta period is considered the golden age of Buddhist art.
• The Mathura and Gandhara styles were synthesised into a perfect classical form.
• Sarnath School: The finest Gupta Buddha images come from Sarnath — thin, transparent robes with no folds, serene meditative expression, perfectly proportioned body.
• Famous Example: The Seated Buddha from Sarnath (5th century CE) — considered the most perfect representation of the Buddha.
• Ajanta Paintings (Phase II): Gupta-period paintings at Ajanta show sophisticated use of colour, shading, and narrative composition. Famous panels include the Bodhisattva Padmapani and Bodhisattva Vajrapani.

PHASE 5: PALA PERIOD — Tantric Buddhism (8th–12th century CE)

• Under the Pala dynasty of Bengal and Bihar, Buddhist art reached its last great phase in India.
• Material: Black basalt stone.
• Subject Matter: Mahayana and Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhist deities — Bodhisattvas, Tara, Heruka, and multi-armed Tantric forms.
• Style: Slender, elegant figures with ornate halos and decorated slabs.
• Nalanda and Vikramashila monasteries were great centres of Buddhist learning and art.
• Influence: Pala art spread to Nepal, Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Southeast Asia, shaping Buddhist art across Asia.

PHASE 6: DECLINE IN INDIA AND SPREAD ABROAD (12th century CE onwards)

• With the destruction of Nalanda (c. 1193 CE) by Bakhtiyar Khilji and the decline of Pala power, Buddhism virtually disappeared from mainland India.
• However, Buddhist art traditions continued and flourished in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, China, Japan, Korea, Nepal, and Tibet, each developing distinct regional styles rooted in the Indian tradition.

SUMMARY TABLE:

Final Answer: Buddhist art developed from an aniconic phase (symbols and stupas) through rock-cut architecture, the emergence of the human image of the Buddha in the Gandhara and Mathura schools, the classical synthesis of the Gupta period, and the Tantric elaborations of the Pala period, before spreading across Asia where it continues to flourish.