An Imperial Capital: Vijaynagara

Methods used to study the ruins of Hampi:

Given: The ruins of Vijayanagara (Hampi) have been studied since the early nineteenth century.

Methods employed:

1. Survey and Mapping: Colin Mackenzie conducted the first survey of the site in 1800. He collected local histories, surveyed historic sites, and made detailed maps. Later, the Vijayanagara Metropolitan Survey (led by John M. Fritz, George Michell and M.S. Nagaraja Rao) divided the entire area into 25 lettered squares, each further subdivided, to document thousands of structures systematically.

2. Archaeological Excavation: Archaeologists excavated the site and found evidence of roads, pavements, pillar bases, platforms, Chinese porcelain shards, agricultural tracts, and canal systems.

3. Study of Inscriptions (Epigraphy): A large number of inscriptions recording donations to temples and important events were recovered and studied.

4. Analysis of Travellers' Accounts: Accounts of foreign visitors such as Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Afanasii Nikitin, Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, and Fernao Nuniz provided vivid descriptions of the city's layout, buildings, and life.

Complementing the priests' information:
The priests of the Virupaksha temple preserved oral traditions, rituals, and local histories associated with the temple and the city. While the priests provided continuity of religious memory and knowledge of the sacred significance of structures, the archaeological and textual methods provided physical evidence, chronology, and broader historical context. Together, they offered a more complete picture — the priests filling in the living traditions and the scholars providing material and documentary evidence.

Given: Vijayanagara was a large imperial capital that required a substantial and reliable water supply.

Water supply system of Vijayanagara:

1. Rivers: The city was situated near the Tungabhadra river, which was the primary source of water. An elaborate canal system drew water from the Tungabhadra to service the agricultural tracts within the fortified area and the urban core.

2. Lakes and Tanks: The city had several lakes and rainwater tanks. Domingo Paes noted 'conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes.' These stored rainwater for use during dry seasons.

3. Wells: Field surveys indicate that wells served as sources of water for ordinary town dwellers.

4. Temple Tanks: Temple tanks within the sacred complex also served as water sources for the local population.

5. Canals: An elaborate canal system connected the river to the agricultural belt between the sacred centre and the urban core, ensuring irrigation of crops grown within the fortified area.

Conclusion: The rulers of Vijayanagara invested heavily in water management infrastructure, combining rivers, canals, tanks, wells, and lakes to meet the needs of a large urban and agricultural population.

Given: The rulers of Vijayanagara enclosed agricultural tracts within the fortified area of the city, serviced by an elaborate canal system drawing water from the Tungabhadra.

Advantages:

1. Defence against sieges: Medieval sieges aimed to starve defenders into submission. By enclosing agricultural land, the city could produce its own food supply during prolonged sieges, making it far more difficult for enemies to force a surrender through starvation.

2. Food security: A steady supply of food (especially rice) was available to the large urban population, reducing dependence on external supply chains.

3. Self-sufficiency: The city could sustain itself economically and nutritionally even when trade routes were disrupted during wars.

Disadvantages:

1. Enormous cost: Protecting a large agricultural belt required building extensive and expensive fortification walls — a far more costly strategy than simply storing grain in granaries.

2. Larger area to defend: A bigger fortified perimeter required more soldiers and resources to guard, stretching military capacity.

3. Vulnerability of crops: During a siege, crops within the walls could be destroyed by fire or flooding, negating the advantage.

4. Land use conflict: Agricultural land within the city reduced space available for urban development and population settlement.

Conclusion: While the strategy was expensive and complex, it gave Vijayanagara a significant strategic advantage in withstanding long sieges.

Given: The mahanavami dibba was a massive platform located at one of the highest points in the city. Rituals associated with it coincided with the festival of Mahanavami (part of the ten-day autumn festival known as Dussehra/Navaratri).

Significance of the rituals:

1. Display of royal power and prestige: The ceremonies — including processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers — were a grand public demonstration of the king's military strength and imperial authority.

2. Assertion of suzerainty: On the last day, the king inspected his own army and the armies of the nayakas. The nayakas brought rich gifts and tribute, publicly reaffirming their loyalty and subordination to the king.

3. Religious legitimacy: The worship of the state image and the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals, connected the king to divine power, reinforcing his sacred authority as a ruler.

4. Political integration: The ritual presentations by chief nayakas and subordinate kings before the king and his guests served to integrate the diverse political units of the empire under the symbolic umbrella of royal authority.

5. Cultural expression: Dances, wrestling matches, and processions were also cultural events that celebrated the empire's prosperity and cultural vitality.

Conclusion: The rituals of the mahanavami dibba were deeply political and religious in nature, serving to legitimise royal authority, consolidate imperial power, and publicly demonstrate the king's dominance over his subordinates.

Note: The actual figure (Fig. 7.33) cannot be seen in the OCR text. The following answer is based on the general description of pillars from the Virupaksha temple as discussed in the chapter, and is representative of what such pillars typically depict.

Floral Motifs:
Yes, the pillar likely features intricate floral and foliate motifs — stylised lotus flowers, creepers, and decorative borders are common on Vijayanagara temple pillars. These represent fertility, auspiciousness, and the abundance of nature.

Animals depicted:
The pillar probably shows horses and elephants, which are commonly depicted on Vijayanagara temple panels. Mythical creatures such as the yali (a composite leonine beast) are also frequently carved on pillars. These animals symbolise royal power, military strength, and divine protection.

Why animals are depicted:
Horses and elephants were the backbone of the Vijayanagara military and were symbols of royal prestige and power. Their depiction on temple pillars linked the king's military might with divine sanction. Mythical creatures like the yali were believed to ward off evil.

Human figures:
The human figures on such pillars typically include celestial beings (apsaras or devadasis) in graceful dancing poses, warriors in armour, and devotees in postures of worship. They are finely carved with detailed ornamentation — jewellery, headdresses, and garments — reflecting the artistic sophistication of Vijayanagara craftsmen.

Conclusion: The pillar as a whole is a rich artistic composition combining religious symbolism, royal imagery, and decorative beauty, reflecting the close relationship between royal patronage and temple art in Vijayanagara.

Introduction:
The term 'royal centre' is used to describe the south-western part of the Vijayanagara settlement. While the name suggests an exclusively royal and administrative zone, a closer examination reveals that the area was far more complex and multifunctional.

Arguments in favour of the term:

1. Palaces and administrative structures: About thirty building complexes have been identified as palaces. These are large structures, and the 'king's palace' is the largest enclosure in the area. The presence of an audience hall — a high platform with slots for wooden pillars — suggests that the king held court and conducted administrative functions here.

2. Mahanavami dibba: This massive platform was the site of grand royal ceremonies during the Mahanavami festival, where the king displayed his power, received tribute from nayakas, and inspected his armies. This is quintessentially a royal function.

3. Exclusive structures: The Hazara Rama temple within this zone was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family, reinforcing the royal character of the area.

Arguments against the term being fully appropriate:

1. Over 60 temples: The royal centre included more than sixty temples. This suggests that the area was not exclusively royal but was also a major religious zone. The patronage of temples was important for rulers seeking to legitimise their authority, but the temples themselves served broader religious purposes.

2. Ambiguity of structures: The 'king's palace' has not yielded definitive evidence of being a royal residence. The function of the audience hall itself remains unclear to historians.

3. Lotus Mahal: The purpose of the Lotus Mahal is uncertain — it may have been a council chamber or a pleasure pavilion, not strictly a royal residence.

Conclusion:
The term 'royal centre' is partially appropriate. The area was certainly associated with royal power, ritual, and administration. However, the large number of temples and the uncertainty about the functions of many structures suggest that it was also a sacred and ceremonial zone. A more accurate description might be 'royal and sacred centre,' reflecting its dual character as a space of both political authority and religious legitimacy.

Introduction:
The Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables are among the most distinctive secular structures in the royal centre of Vijayanagara. Their architectural style and design reveal much about the rulers who commissioned them.

The Lotus Mahal:
The Lotus Mahal is one of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre. It is named after its lotus-like shape. Its most striking architectural feature is the use of arches and corbelled towers that blend Hindu and Islamic architectural traditions. The arches are typical of Indo-Islamic architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans, while the overall form and decorative elements draw on indigenous South Indian traditions. The building is elegant and refined, suggesting that the rulers had sophisticated aesthetic sensibilities and were open to incorporating diverse architectural influences.

The Elephant Stables:
The elephant stables are a long, imposing structure consisting of a row of chambers with alternating square and octagonal domed roofs. The domes are clearly inspired by Islamic architectural techniques. The sheer scale of the structure reflects the importance of elephants in the Vijayanagara military and the wealth needed to maintain a large elephant corps.

What the architecture reveals about the rulers:

1. Cosmopolitan outlook: The rulers were not rigid in their cultural preferences. They freely borrowed architectural ideas from the Deccan Sultanates and blended them with local traditions, creating a distinctive Indo-Islamic style. This reflects a pragmatic and cosmopolitan approach to culture.

2. Wealth and power: The scale and quality of construction demonstrate that the rulers commanded enormous resources, skilled craftsmen, and advanced building techniques.

3. Military priorities: The elephant stables reflect the centrality of military power to the Vijayanagara state. Elephants were symbols of royal prestige and key instruments of war.

4. Legitimacy through grandeur: By constructing magnificent buildings, the rulers sought to project an image of power, prosperity, and divine favour.

Conclusion:
The architecture of the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables reveals rulers who were wealthy, militarily powerful, aesthetically sophisticated, and culturally open — willing to draw on multiple traditions to create a unique imperial identity.

Introduction:
The architecture of Vijayanagara was not created in isolation. It drew inspiration from multiple traditions — indigenous South Indian temple architecture, the architectural innovations of the Deccan Sultanates, and earlier regional styles — and transformed them into a distinctive imperial style.

Architectural traditions that inspired Vijayanagara architects:

1. South Indian temple architecture: The Vijayanagara architects built upon the long tradition of Dravidian temple architecture. The use of gopurams (towering gateways), mandapas (pillared pavilions), and the layout of temple complexes with concentric enclosures all derive from this tradition. The Virupaksha temple, for example, had origins dating to the ninth-tenth centuries.

2. Indo-Islamic architecture: The rulers of Vijayanagara borrowed concepts and building techniques from the Deccan Sultanates. The use of arches, domes, and corbelled vaults — visible in the Lotus Mahal, the elephant stables, and the gateways of the fortification walls — reflects the influence of Islamic architectural techniques introduced by the Turkish Sultans. Art historians call this blended style 'Indo-Islamic.'

3. Earlier regional traditions: Interaction with the Gajapati rulers of Orissa and other regional powers also contributed to the exchange of architectural ideas.

How Vijayanagara architects transformed these traditions:

1. Scale and grandeur: The raya gopurams (royal gateways) were built on an immense scale, often dwarfing the towers of the central shrines. This was a new development that transformed the gopuram from a functional gateway into a symbol of imperial authority.

2. Blending of styles: Vijayanagara architects creatively combined Hindu and Islamic elements. The Lotus Mahal, for instance, uses Islamic arches and domes alongside Hindu decorative motifs, creating a unique synthesis.

3. Elaborate mandapas: Long, pillared corridors and kalyana mandapas (marriage halls) were added to temple complexes on a scale not seen before, reflecting the growing importance of temple rituals and royal patronage.

4. Sculptural richness: The pillars of Vijayanagara temples were elaborately carved with mythical creatures (yalis), horses, elephants, celestial beings, and scenes from epics, transforming structural elements into works of art.

Conclusion:
Vijayanagara architecture represents a creative synthesis of multiple traditions. By borrowing selectively and transforming what they borrowed, the architects of Vijayanagara created a distinctive imperial style that expressed the power, piety, and cosmopolitan character of the empire.

Introduction:
Although the grand temples, palaces, and royal structures dominate our image of Vijayanagara, the chapter also provides glimpses into the lives of ordinary people through travellers' accounts, archaeological evidence, and inscriptions.

Housing:
The Portuguese traveller Barbosa described the houses of ordinary people as thatched but 'well built and arranged according to occupations, in long streets with many open places.' This suggests that the city was well-organised, with different occupational groups living in distinct neighbourhoods. The houses of the wealthy, however, were more substantial — archaeologists found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, suggesting that rich traders lived in certain quarters.

Occupations and trade:
The city had a thriving commercial life. Roads leading from temple gateways were lined by bazaars. The presence of merchants from distant lands (including Muslim traders who had their own residential quarter with mosques and tombs) indicates that trade was a major activity. Craftspersons, traders, and peasants all formed part of the urban population.

Water and agriculture:
Ordinary people had access to wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks for water. Agricultural land was cultivated within the fortified area, and rice was grown. This suggests that many ordinary people were engaged in farming even within the city.

Religious life:
The city was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, pointing to a variety of religious cults supported by different communities. This suggests a rich and diverse religious life among ordinary people.

Diversity:
The city was home to people of different languages, religions, and occupations — Hindus, Muslims, traders from Portugal, Russia, Persia, and Italy all visited or lived in the city. This cosmopolitan character must have enriched the daily lives of ordinary residents.

Conclusion:
Ordinary people in Vijayanagara lived in a well-organised, commercially active, and religiously diverse city. While their thatched houses contrasted sharply with the grand stone temples and palaces, they participated in a vibrant urban life shaped by trade, agriculture, craft, and religious practice.

Given:
The travellers who visited Vijayanagara were:
- Nicolo de Conti — Italian trader (15th century)
- Abdur Razzaq — Ambassador from Persia/Iran (15th century)
- Afanasii Nikitin — Russian merchant (15th century)
- Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz — Portuguese travellers (16th century)

Instructions for Map Work:

On an outline map of the world, mark the following countries/regions:
- Italy — Southern Europe, on the Italian peninsula in the Mediterranean region.
- Portugal — South-western Europe, on the Iberian Peninsula.
- Iran (Persia) — South-western Asia, east of the Arabian Peninsula.
- Russia — Northern Eurasia, the largest country in the world.
- Vijayanagara (Hampi) — Mark it in the Deccan region of South India (present-day Karnataka).

Probable routes:

1. Nicolo de Conti (Italy): Likely travelled overland through the Middle East (Egypt, Arabia) and then by sea across the Indian Ocean to the western coast of India, proceeding inland to Vijayanagara. Alternatively, he may have sailed from the Mediterranean through the Red Sea.

2. Abdur Razzaq (Iran/Persia): Travelled from Persia (present-day Iran) overland to the Persian Gulf port of Hormuz, then by sea across the Arabian Sea to the port of Calicut (Kozhikode) on the Malabar Coast, and then overland to Vijayanagara.

3. Afanasii Nikitin (Russia): Travelled from Russia southward through the Caspian Sea region, through Persia, then by sea across the Arabian Sea to India, reaching the western coast and proceeding to Vijayanagara.

4. Portuguese travellers (Portugal): Sailed south along the west coast of Africa, around the Cape of Good Hope, across the Indian Ocean to the western coast of India (Goa or Calicut), and then overland to Vijayanagara.

Note: Students should draw these routes as arrows on the outline map, clearly labelling the starting points and the destination (Vijayanagara/Hampi in Karnataka, India).

Note: This is a project question. The following is a model answer based on the city of Fatehpur Sikri (built by Mughal Emperor Akbar, c. 1571–1585), which flourished in the sixteenth century.

City chosen: Fatehpur Sikri (Uttar Pradesh)

Historical background:
Fatehpur Sikri was built by Emperor Akbar as the new Mughal capital near Agra. It served as the imperial capital from 1571 to 1585, after which it was abandoned, possibly due to water scarcity.

Architecture:
The city's architecture is a magnificent blend of Mughal, Persian, and indigenous Indian (Hindu and Jain) styles — a synthesis known as Indo-Islamic architecture. Key structures include:
- Buland Darwaza — A massive gateway, one of the tallest in the world, built to commemorate Akbar's victory over Gujarat.
- Jama Masjid — A grand congregational mosque.
- Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience) and Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) — Administrative halls.
- Panch Mahal — A five-storeyed pavilion.
- Tomb of Salim Chishti — A white marble tomb of the Sufi saint.

Political centre:
The Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas clearly indicate that Fatehpur Sikri was a political centre. The Diwan-i-Aam was where the emperor heard public petitions, while the Diwan-i-Khas was used for private meetings with nobles and ambassadors. The Buland Darwaza proclaimed imperial victories.

Ritually significant buildings:
The Jama Masjid and the Tomb of Salim Chishti are ritually significant. Akbar built the city partly in gratitude to the Sufi saint Salim Chishti, whose blessings he believed had given him a son (the future Emperor Jahangir). The tomb remains a site of pilgrimage.

Commercial areas:
The city had a bazaar area (market) near the main entrance. Caravanserais (rest houses for merchants) were also part of the urban plan, facilitating trade.

Distinctive urban features:
The city was enclosed by a massive fortification wall with several gateways. The royal complex was separated from the public areas. The use of red sandstone throughout the city gave it a distinctive visual identity. The planned layout — with separate zones for royal, religious, and commercial activities — distinguished it sharply from the unplanned settlements of surrounding villages.

Conclusion:
Fatehpur Sikri exemplifies the grandeur of Mughal urban planning, combining political authority, religious legitimacy, and commercial vitality in a single, magnificently designed imperial capital.

Note: This is a field-based project question. The following is a model answer. Students should visit an actual religious building in their neighbourhood and adapt this framework to their observations.

Religious building visited (Model): A local Hindu temple

Description of architectural features:

- Roof/Shikhara: The temple has a tapering tower (shikhara) over the central shrine, typical of North Indian (Nagara) style. It is made of stone/brick and plastered white.
- Pillars: The entrance hall (mandapa) has four stone pillars with simple carved capitals. They support the flat roof of the hall.
- Arches: There are no true arches; the structure uses post-and-lintel construction, which is traditional in Hindu temple architecture.
- Corridors and passages: A narrow circumambulatory passage (pradakshina path) runs around the central shrine, allowing devotees to walk around the deity as an act of worship.
- Halls: The mandapa (pillared hall) in front of the shrine is used for congregational worship, bhajans (devotional singing), and festivals.
- Entrance: The entrance is marked by a small gateway with a carved torana (decorative arch). Devotees remove their footwear before entering.
- Water supply: A small tank (kund) in the courtyard is used for ritual bathing and for washing hands and feet before worship. A tap has been added in modern times.

Comparison with the Virupaksha temple:

| Feature | Local temple | Virupaksha temple |
|---|---|---|
| Scale | Small | Enormous |
| Gopuram | Small gateway | Massive raya gopuram |
| Mandapa | One simple hall | Multiple elaborate mandapas |
| Water | Small tank | Large temple tank + canal system |
| Pillars | Plain | Elaborately carved |
| History | Recent (50–100 years) | Origins in 9th–10th century |

Uses of different parts:
- Sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha): Houses the main deity; only the priest enters.
- Mandapa: Used for worship, festivals, and community gatherings.
- Pradakshina path: Used for circumambulation by devotees.
- Courtyard: Used for large festivals and processions.

History:
The temple was built approximately [X] years ago by [local community/patron]. It is dedicated to [deity]. It has been renovated [number] times. It is managed by a local trust.

Conclusion:
Even a small neighbourhood temple shares fundamental features with the great Virupaksha temple — a central shrine, a hall for worship, a circumambulatory path, and a water source. The difference lies in scale, artistic elaboration, and historical depth, reflecting the resources and ambitions of those who commissioned them.