Thinking

Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities and is unique to human beings. It is a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyse information received from the environment or already stored in memory. This manipulation may involve abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging, and decision-making.

Thinking is usually organised and goal-directed. We think to reach a goal, such as solving a maths problem or planning an activity. It is also an internal mental process, so we cannot directly observe it; we infer it from a person’s behaviour. In short, thinking means going beyond the information given and creating new meaning by using our existing knowledge.

A concept is a mental representation of a category. It refers to a class of objects, ideas, or events that share common properties.

Concepts play an important role in thinking because they help us organise our knowledge. When we see something, we identify it by matching its characteristics with an existing category, such as calling an apple a fruit or a table furniture. This makes thought quicker and more efficient, because we can access stored knowledge with less time and effort. Concepts also help us classify new objects and events, so we do not have to treat every experience as completely new.

The chapter mentions four main obstacles in problem solving:

1. Mental set — a tendency to solve problems by using already tried strategies or steps. It can help in familiar situations but can also create rigidity and block new methods.
2. Functional fixedness — failure to solve a problem because one is fixed on the usual function of an object.
3. Lack of motivation — even skilled people may not solve problems if they are not motivated to keep trying.
4. Lack of persistence — giving up easily after failure or after the first unsuccessful attempt.

These obstacles reduce flexibility and prevent a person from finding new solutions.

Reasoning helps in problem solving by allowing us to gather and analyse information and then arrive at a conclusion. It is a form of problem solving in which the goal is to determine what conclusion can be drawn from the given facts.

The chapter describes two main kinds of reasoning:
- Deductive reasoning: starts with a general assumption and draws a specific conclusion. It moves from general to particular.
- Inductive reasoning: starts with specific observations and draws a general conclusion. It moves from particular to general.

Reasoning helps us make sense of situations, infer causes, and decide what is most likely true. Analogy is another form of reasoning that helps us see relationships and solve problems by comparing one situation with another.

Yes, judgment and decision-making are interrelated processes.

In judgment, we draw conclusions, form opinions, or evaluate objects and events based on knowledge and evidence. For example, we may judge a person suitable for a job based on certain qualities.

In decision-making, we choose among alternatives by evaluating the costs and benefits of each option. For example, choosing between two subjects or two activities requires decision-making.

They are related because judgment often helps us evaluate the available options, and decision-making uses those judgments to select one alternative. However, they are not exactly the same: judgment is about evaluating, while decision-making is about choosing.