Methods of Enquiry in Psychology — NCERT Solutions

Survey Method — Examples and Limitations:

Definition: The survey method is a research technique used to collect information from a large number of people about their opinions, attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, or experiences. It is used to describe the existing reality.

Two Examples of Situations Where Survey Method Can Be Used:

Example 1: A researcher wants to study the attitudes of college students towards online education. A questionnaire with structured questions can be distributed to a large sample of students across different colleges to gather their opinions, preferences, and experiences.

Example 2: A government agency wants to assess the health and hygiene practices of people in rural areas (e.g., handwashing habits, use of toilets, access to clean water). Trained interviewers can conduct structured interviews with a representative sample of the rural population.

Limitations of the Survey Method:

1. Dependence on Self-Report: Surveys rely on participants reporting their own behaviour, attitudes, or opinions. People may not always be honest — they may give socially desirable answers rather than truthful ones.

2. Sampling Bias: If the sample selected is not truly representative of the population, the findings cannot be generalised. For example, if only educated urban people are surveyed about rural health practices, the results will be biased.

3. Misinterpretation of Questions: Respondents may interpret questions differently from what the researcher intended, leading to inaccurate data.

4. Low Response Rate: In mailed questionnaires, many people may not respond, leading to incomplete data and potential bias (those who respond may differ systematically from those who do not).

5. Superficial Data: Surveys typically collect surface-level information. They cannot capture the depth, complexity, or context of human behaviour the way methods like case study or in-depth interviews can.

6. Cannot Establish Causality: Surveys can describe or show associations between variables, but they cannot establish cause-effect relationships.

7. Influence of Interviewer: In interview-based surveys, the interviewer's tone, appearance, or behaviour may influence the respondent's answers (interviewer bias).

Conclusion: Despite these limitations, the survey method is widely used because it allows data collection from a large number of people quickly and economically.

Difference Between an Interview and a Questionnaire:

Conclusion: Both interviews and questionnaires are tools of the survey method. Interviews are richer and more flexible but costly and time-consuming, while questionnaires are economical and suitable for large samples but lack depth and flexibility.

Characteristics of a Standardised Psychological Test:

A psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument used to measure psychological variables such as intelligence, personality, aptitude, attitudes, etc. The key characteristics of a standardised test are:

1. Standardisation:
A standardised test is administered, scored, and interpreted in a uniform, consistent manner for all individuals. The conditions of testing (instructions, time limits, materials) are the same for everyone. Standardisation also involves establishing norms — data from a large, representative sample that serve as a reference point for interpreting individual scores.

2. Objectivity:
The test is objective — the scoring is not influenced by the personal opinions or biases of the examiner. The same answer will receive the same score regardless of who scores it.

3. Reliability:
A reliable test gives consistent results over time and across different situations. If the same person takes the test on two different occasions (without any change in the trait being measured), the scores should be similar. Reliability can be measured through test-retest reliability, split-half reliability, etc.

4. Validity:
A valid test measures what it claims to measure. For example, an intelligence test should actually measure intelligence and not something else like memory alone. Validity is the most important characteristic of a psychological test.

5. Norms:
Norms are the average scores of a large, representative sample of the population for whom the test is designed. Norms allow the comparison of an individual's score with the scores of others in the same group (e.g., same age, gender, educational level). Without norms, a raw score has no meaning.

6. Practicability:
A good test should be practical — easy to administer, score, and interpret. It should not be too lengthy, expensive, or complicated.

7. Sensitivity:
The test should be sensitive enough to detect even small differences between individuals on the trait being measured.

Types of Standardised Tests:

• Based on content: Verbal, Non-verbal, Performance tests
• Based on administration: Individual tests, Group tests
• Based on nature: Speed tests, Power tests

Conclusion: A standardised psychological test is a scientific, objective, reliable, and valid instrument that allows meaningful comparison of individuals' psychological characteristics against established norms.

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry:

Despite being a scientific discipline, psychological enquiry faces several important limitations:

1. Lack of Absolute Zero Point:
Unlike physical sciences (where zero means complete absence of a property, e.g., zero temperature), psychological measurements lack an absolute zero. For example, a score of zero on an intelligence test does not mean the person has zero intelligence. This makes it difficult to make precise, ratio-level comparisons between individuals.

2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools:
Psychological tests and measurement tools are relative, not absolute. A test developed in one culture or context may not be equally valid or reliable in another. The meaning of a score depends on the norms used, which are themselves based on a particular population.

3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data:
Qualitative methods (such as case studies, narrative analysis, content analysis) involve the subjective interpretation of data by the researcher. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, reducing objectivity and making it difficult to replicate findings.

4. Ethical Constraints:
Many important psychological questions cannot be studied directly because doing so would be unethical. For example, researchers cannot deliberately expose people to trauma or deprivation to study its effects. This limits the scope of experimental research.

5. Complexity of Human Behaviour:
Human behaviour is influenced by a vast number of biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors. It is extremely difficult to control all variables or to study behaviour in complete isolation from its context.

6. Reactivity (Hawthorne Effect):
When people know they are being studied, they may change their behaviour, making it difficult to observe natural behaviour. This is known as reactivity or the Hawthorne effect.

7. Demand Characteristics:
Participants may try to guess the purpose of the study and behave in ways they think the researcher expects, distorting the results.

8. Generalisation Problems:
Findings from one study (conducted on a specific sample, in a specific context) may not generalise to other populations, cultures, or settings.

9. Replication Difficulties:
Because human behaviour is influenced by context and individual differences, it is often difficult to replicate psychological studies exactly, raising questions about the reliability of findings.

Conclusion: These limitations do not invalidate psychological enquiry but remind us to interpret findings cautiously, use multiple methods, and continuously refine our tools and theories.

Ethical Guidelines for Conducting Psychological Enquiry:

Ethics in research refers to the moral principles that guide the conduct of research to protect the rights and well-being of participants. A psychologist must follow the following ethical guidelines:

1. Voluntary Participation:
Participation in psychological research must be completely voluntary. No one should be forced, pressured, or coerced into participating. Participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

2. Informed Consent:
Before the study begins, participants must be given adequate information about the nature, purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the research. They must give their informed consent (written or verbal agreement) to participate. In the case of minors, consent must be obtained from parents or guardians.

3. Confidentiality:
All information provided by participants must be kept strictly confidential. The data should be used only for research purposes and should not be shared with any third party without the participant's permission. The most effective way to protect confidentiality is to not record participants' identities. If identification is necessary, code numbers are used, and the identification list is destroyed after the research is complete.

4. Privacy:
Researchers must respect the privacy of participants. Personal information should not be collected beyond what is necessary for the research.

5. Debriefing:
After the study is completed, the researcher must debrief the participants — i.e., explain the true purpose of the study, clarify any deception used, and address any concerns or distress caused by the research. Debriefing ensures that participants leave the study with a clear understanding of what took place.

6. Avoidance of Deception:
Researchers should avoid deceiving participants about the nature or purpose of the study. If deception is unavoidable (e.g., in certain social psychology experiments), it must be justified by the scientific value of the research, and participants must be fully debriefed afterwards.

7. Protection from Harm:
Researchers must ensure that participants are not subjected to physical, psychological, or emotional harm during or after the study. If any harm occurs, the researcher is responsible for providing appropriate help.

8. Sharing of Results:
Participants have the right to know the results and conclusions of the research in which they participated. Researchers should share findings with participants in an understandable manner.

9. Non-Discrimination:
Researchers must treat all participants with respect and dignity, without discrimination on the basis of gender, caste, religion, ethnicity, or any other characteristic.

Conclusion: Following ethical guidelines is not only a moral obligation but also essential for maintaining public trust in psychological research and ensuring the integrity of scientific findings.

Project: Survey of After-School Activities of Class V and Class IX Students

Objective: To compare the after-school activities of Class V and Class IX students and identify differences in how they spend their time.

Method Used: Survey Method (using a structured questionnaire or interview)

Sample: 10 students from Class V + 10 students from Class IX = 20 students total.

Procedure:

1. Prepare a structured questionnaire asking students to report the time (in hours/minutes per day) they spend on:

• Studying/homework
• Playing/physical activity
• Television viewing
• Hobbies (drawing, music, reading, etc.)
• Mobile phone/internet use
• Sleeping/resting
• Other activities

2. Administer the questionnaire to 10 Class V students and 10 Class IX students separately.

3. Record and tabulate the data.

4. Calculate the average time spent on each activity for each class.

5. Compare the two groups.

Expected Observations and Differences:

(Note: Actual data collected by students may vary.)

Conclusions:

1. Class IX students spend significantly more time studying due to increased academic pressure compared to Class V students.
2. Class V students spend more time in play and recreational activities.
3. As students move to higher classes, leisure time decreases and study time increases.
4. Mobile/internet use tends to increase with age.

Suggestions:

1. Students in both classes should maintain a balance between study, play, and hobbies for holistic development.
2. Physical activity should not be neglected even in higher classes, as it improves concentration and mental health.
3. Screen time (TV and mobile) should be regulated for both age groups.
4. Schools and parents should encourage hobbies and creative activities even for Class IX students to reduce stress.

Learning from this Project: This project demonstrates the use of the survey method in psychological research, including sampling, data collection, tabulation, and drawing conclusions.

Project: Effect of Recitation on Learning of Poetry

Objective: To study whether recitation (reading aloud) improves the learning and recall of poetry in six-year-old children.

Method of Research Used:

$$\boxed{\text{Experimental Method}}$$

This is an experiment because the researcher is manipulating one variable (recitation vs. no recitation) and measuring its effect on another variable (recall of poetry), while keeping all other conditions constant.

Hypothesis:

"Children who read the poem aloud (recitation) will recall more lines of the poem than children who do not read it aloud."

This is a directional hypothesis predicting that recitation will lead to better recall.

Variables:

1. Independent Variable (IV):
$$\text{Method of learning — Recitation (reading aloud) vs. Silent reading (not reading aloud)}$$

The researcher manipulates this variable by assigning Group 1 to read aloud and Group 2 to read silently.

2. Dependent Variable (DV):
$$\text{Recall of the poem — measured by the number of lines/words correctly recalled after 15 minutes}$$

3. Extraneous Variables (to be controlled):

• Same poem for both groups
• Same duration (15 minutes)
• Same age group (six-year-olds)
• Same environment (both groups dealt with separately)
• Same instructions (except for the recitation condition)

Experimental Design:

$$\boxed{\text{Independent Groups Design (Between-Subjects Design)}}$$

In this design, two separate groups of participants are used — one group for each condition. The 10 children are randomly divided into:

• Group 1 (Experimental Group): 5 children who read the poem aloud for 15 minutes.
• Group 2 (Control Group): 5 children who read the same poem silently for 15 minutes.

After 15 minutes, both groups are asked to recall the poem, and their scores are compared.

Procedure:

1. Select 10 six-year-old children and randomly divide them into two groups of 5 each.
2. Ensure both groups are dealt with separately so they do not influence each other.
3. Give both groups the same new poem.
4. Group 1: Instruct to read the poem loudly for 15 minutes.
5. Group 2: Instruct to read the poem silently (not loudly) for 15 minutes.
6. After 15 minutes, ask each child to recall as much of the poem as they can.
7. Record the number of lines/words correctly recalled by each child.
8. Calculate the average recall score for each group.
9. Compare the scores of Group 1 and Group 2.

Expected Result:
Group 1 (recitation group) is expected to recall more lines of the poem than Group 2 (silent reading group), supporting the hypothesis that recitation aids learning.

Conclusion:
If Group 1 recalls significantly more than Group 2, we can conclude that recitation (reading aloud) has a positive effect on the learning and recall of poetry in six-year-old children.

Learning from this Project: This project illustrates the key features of the experimental method — hypothesis formulation, identification of IV and DV, use of experimental and control groups, and drawing conclusions based on data.