Social Structure, Stratification and Social Processes in Society

In agricultural operations, cooperation is needed in many tasks such as ploughing, sowing, harvesting and irrigation. The chapter gives the example of a charas (indigenous device of well irrigation), which needs 2 pairs of bullocks and four men. Because one household may not have enough bullocks or labour, people borrow animals and workers from kin, neighbours and friends, and later return the help in similar form. The chapter also shows that when a rehat (Persian wheel) replaces a charas, the need for cooperation is reduced because only one pair of bullocks and one person are needed.

In industrial operations, cooperation is also essential because work is divided into many specialised tasks. In a factory, different workers must perform different jobs so that the whole production process continues. The chapter says that in a garment or car factory, specialised workers depend on many other specialised workers to meet their needs and to complete production.

So, cooperation is required wherever work is divided among several people and the task cannot be completed by one person alone.

Cooperation is not always voluntary. The chapter explains that in many situations it is enforced cooperation. This means people cooperate not only because they want to, but because social arrangements, norms, or power relations make them do so.

The chapter gives the example of women in the natal family who often do not claim property rights. Many women avoid taking their share because they fear damaging relations with brothers or being treated badly by brothers’ wives. Here cooperation with the existing family norm is not fully voluntary; it is shaped by fear, social pressure, and the strength of norms.

The chapter also says that cooperation may be maintained by sanctions as well as by the power of norms. For example, if someone challenges accepted family or social arrangements, they may face disapproval, loss of affection, or exclusion. In such cases, people appear to cooperate, but the cooperation may actually conceal conflict.

So, cooperation can be voluntary, but in many societies it is also enforced by norms and sanctions. The chapter especially shows that in households and gender relations, apparent cooperation often hides unequal power.

Yes, the chapter gives several illustrative examples of conflict in Indian society:

1. Women’s right to natal property: Many women do not claim their property rights because of fear of upsetting relations with brothers. This is a conflict between gender inequality and women’s claims to rights.

2. Land conflict in the Bhoodan-Gramdan example: Harbaksh’s land was mortgaged to Nathu Ahir, then after Harbaksh’s death Ganpat tried to reclaim it. When Nathu refused, Ganpat used violence and influence over the police. The cause of conflict was control over land, lack of proper legal records, and unequal power.

3. Class conflict: The chapter says factory owners and workers cooperate in production, but their relationship is marked by conflict of interests because the owner appropriates the surplus while workers do the labour.

4. Caste and gender conflicts: The chapter notes that in societies divided by caste, class or patriarchy, some groups are disadvantaged and discriminated against. Conflict arises from inequality and domination.

In all these cases, conflict grows out of scarcity, unequal access to resources, and unequal power.