A bitter peace 1918-33

It allowed Germany to secretly build weapons and train military personnel on Russian soil, circumventing Versailles disarmament clauses.

Step 1: Understand what Rapallo achieved on the surface — Germany and Soviet Russia resumed diplomatic relations and pledged future cooperation. Step 2: Identify the deeper military significance — Sally Marks explains that on the Russian plains, far from League control commissions, Germany built factories and produced airplanes, poison gases and tanks forbidden by Versailles. Step 3: Recognise the impact — this arrangement meant Germany was already violating Versailles disarmament clauses in secret, which undermined the entire peace settlement. Step 4: Eliminate wrong options — the Russian Civ

Wilson's refusal to consult the Senate before the Paris Conference created powerful enemies, and his refusal to compromise on Article 10 of the Covenant sealed the treaty's defeat.

Step 1: Identify Wilson's political mistake — he did not include Senate members or sufficient Republicans in his Paris delegation, violating the convention of Senate consultation and making enemies who wanted revenge. Step 2: Understand the Senate opposition — the Irreconcilables under Senator Borah opposed League membership under any circumstances; the moderates under Henry Cabot Lodge wanted Article 10 struck out. Step 3: Identify Wilson's fatal flaw — he had no capacity for compromise and instead toured the country seeking popular support, an exhausting campaign that wrecked his health and

Carr argues Germans most resented the 'moral stigma' of sole war guilt and the dictated, humiliating manner of signing, which ensured they felt no responsibility for fulfilling it.

Step 1: Recall Carr's argument — he acknowledged that Germany could have fared worse, as Clemenceau's full demands were restrained by Britain and America. Step 2: Identify what Carr pinpoints as most damaging — it was not the territorial losses or reparations figure alone, but the 'moral stigma of sole war-guilt' that the Germans did not accept. Step 3: Note the second factor — the treaty was dictated, not negotiated, and signed in humiliating circumstances, which made it certain Germans would accept no responsibility for its fulfilment. Step 4: Eliminate wrong options — the Sudetenland was no

525,000 tons each for Britain and the USA; 300,000 tons for Japan.

Step 1: Recall the Washington Conference context — it focused on naval disarmament, particularly regarding the Pacific and Far East, driven by American concern about Japan's growing naval power. Step 2: Identify the specific treaty terms — the Five-Power Treaty of February 1922 limited naval tonnage for capital ships: 525,000 tons for both Britain and the United States (equal footing as the only truly global naval powers), 300,000 tons for Japan, and 175,000 tons each for France and Italy. Step 3: Note the significance — Adam Tooze describes this as America defining a global order in 'unpreced