A Period of Transition

Established a direct sea route from Europe to India by sailing around Africa.

Step 1: Before Vasco da Gama's voyage, Europeans had no direct sea route to India and Asia. Step 2: Bartholomew Diaz had already reached the Cape of Good Hope (southern tip of Africa) earlier — so Option D is wrong. Step 3: Vasco da Gama successfully sailed around the entire African continent and arrived at Calicut on India's west coast in 1498 CE. Step 4: This discovery of a new sea route to India allowed Portugal to establish direct trade with India, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, and the East Indies. Step 5: Option A is wrong — it was Ferdinand Magellan who circumnavigated the globe. Option B is

He believed he had reached Asia (the East Indies) and called the local people 'Indians'.

Step 1: Columbus set out westward across the Atlantic Ocean with the goal of reaching Asia (the East Indies) to establish a trade route. Step 2: When he arrived in the Americas in 1492 CE, he genuinely believed he had reached the outskirts of Asia. Step 3: Because of this mistake, he called the native people of the Americas 'Indians' — a name that stuck for centuries. Step 4: He never realized he had discovered an entirely new continent. Step 5: Option A is wrong — that was Bartholomew Diaz's achievement. Option C is wrong — that describes Vasco da Gama's voyage. Option D is wrong — Columbus a

England had large colonies, abundant coal and iron, accumulated capital, and a stable government free from feudal dominance.

Step 1: The textbook lists several specific reasons why England was uniquely positioned for an industrial revolution. Step 2: England had accumulated vast capital through overseas trade and had numerous colonies supplying raw materials. Step 3: Abundant natural resources (iron and coal) existed side by side in England, which no other country enjoyed to the same extent. Step 4: After the 17th-century revolution, England had a stable government where commercial classes held more power and there was no risk of feudal or government interference in trade. Step 5: The enclosure movement also created

It led to large landowners consolidating land, displacing small peasants who then became factory workers.

Step 1: The enclosure movement involved big landowners taking over and consolidating large landholdings, including the small plots held by peasant farmers. Step 2: Small peasants who depended on this land were ousted or displaced, leaving them without land or livelihood. Step 3: This created a large 'army' of landless, unemployed people who had no choice but to look for work elsewhere. Step 4: These displaced peasants moved to newly emerging factory towns and cities, providing cheap and abundant labour for the Industrial Revolution's factories. Step 5: Option A is partially related but does no