Semiconductor Devices

Higher efficiency, Lower ripple factor, Uses both half-cycles, Better transformer utilization

Full-wave rectifier advantages: 1) Efficiency is 81.2% vs 40.6% for half-wave 2) Lower ripple as both cycles are used 3) Better transformer utilization 4) Uses both positive and negative half-cycles. However, it requires two diodes, not one.

5 mA

Given: IB = 50 μA = 50 × 10⁻⁶ A, β = 100 Using the relation: IC = β × IB IC = 100 × 50 × 10⁻⁶ = 5000 × 10⁻⁶ A = 5 × 10⁻³ A = 5 mA

NAND gate, NOR gate

NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates because any Boolean function can be implemented using only NAND gates or only NOR gates. All other logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) can be constructed using combinations of NAND or NOR gates.

All inputs are HIGH

An AND gate performs logical multiplication. The output Y = A·B is HIGH (1) only when both inputs A and B are HIGH (1). If any input is LOW (0), the output becomes LOW (0). This follows the Boolean equation Y = A·B.