Electrostatics

Electric charge is quantized, Electric charge is conserved in isolated systems, Electric charge is additive in nature

The three fundamental properties of electric charge are: 1) Quantization - charge exists in discrete multiples of e, 2) Conservation - total charge remains constant in isolated systems, 3) Additive nature - net charge is algebraic sum of individual charges. Charge cannot be created or destroyed, and both positive and negative charges exist.

2.26 × 10⁵ N·m²/C

According to Gauss' law, electric flux through a closed surface is φ = Q/ε₀ = (2 × 10⁻⁶)/(8.85 × 10⁻¹²) = 2.26 × 10⁵ N·m²/C. The flux is independent of the radius of the sphere.

They originate from positive charges and terminate on negative charges, They never intersect each other, They are crowded where electric field is strong

Electric lines of force: 1) Start from positive charges and end on negative charges, 2) Never intersect (would imply two field directions at one point), 3) Density indicates field strength, 4) Cannot pass through conductors (field inside conductor is zero), 5) Do not form closed loops (unlike magnetic field lines).

q × 2l (from -q to +q)

Dipole moment p = q × 2l, where 2l is the separation between charges. The direction is from negative to positive charge by convention. Magnitude is charge times separation distance.