The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

Given / Context: The civilisation is variously called the Indus Valley Civilisation, the Harappan Civilisation, and the Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation.

Discussion:

1. Indus Valley Civilisation – This was the earliest name given by archaeologists because the first major sites (Mohenjo-daro, Harappa) were discovered along the Indus River. It highlights the geographical heartland of the civilisation.

2. Harappan Civilisation – Harappa was the *first* site to be excavated and officially reported (1921). In archaeology, a culture is often named after the site where it is first identified. This name honours the discovery history.

3. Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation – Later research and satellite imagery showed that a large number of sites (perhaps the majority) were located along the dried-up bed of the ancient Sarasvatī River (present-day Ghaggar-Hakra). Including 'Sarasvatī' in the name gives a more complete geographical picture and acknowledges the importance of this second great river system to the civilisation.

Significance of having multiple names:
- Each name captures a *different aspect* — geographical spread, archaeological history, or river-based culture.
- The multiplicity of names reminds us that our understanding of this civilisation has *evolved* over time as more sites were excavated.
- It also reflects ongoing scholarly debate and the need to be inclusive of all evidence.

Conclusion: No single name is fully adequate; together they reflect the richness, geographical extent, and evolving knowledge of one of the world's earliest urban civilisations.

Report: Achievements of the Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation

The Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE) was one of the most advanced urban cultures of the ancient world, flourishing across a vast area covering present-day Pakistan, northwestern India, and parts of Afghanistan.

Urban Planning: Its cities — Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Kalibangan — were laid out on a grid pattern with straight streets, suggesting careful town planning. Buildings were constructed with standardised, kiln-fired bricks.

Water Management: The civilisation showed remarkable engineering skill. Mohenjo-daro had about 700 brick-lined wells, an elaborate drainage system, and the famous Great Bath. Dholavira had a sophisticated network of reservoirs and channels to harvest rainwater.

Trade and Crafts: Harappans were skilled craftspeople who made fine pottery, jewellery of gold, carnelian, and shell, as well as bronze tools. They traded with Mesopotamia and Central Asia.

Weights and Measures: A standardised system of weights and measures was used across the civilisation, indicating organised commerce.

Script: They developed a script (still undeciphered) found on thousands of seals, suggesting literacy and administrative organisation.

These achievements place the Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation among the greatest of the ancient world.

Given: Harappa is located in present-day Punjab, Pakistan. Kalibangan is located in Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan, India. The straight-line distance between them is approximately 500–550 km.

Travel Options and Estimated Time:

| Mode of Travel | Approximate Speed | Estimated Time |
|---|---|---|
| Walking | ~25–30 km per day | ~18–22 days |
| Bullock cart / ox-drawn cart | ~30–40 km per day | ~14–18 days |
| Horse or camel | ~60–80 km per day | ~7–9 days |
| River/boat travel (along the Indus-Sarasvatī river system) | ~40–50 km per day | ~11–14 days |

Note (Harappan context): In Harappan times, the most likely options would have been walking, bullock carts (evidence of wheeled vehicles exists), and river boats along the Sarasvatī river system. Horses may have been known but were not the primary means of long-distance travel.

Modern options (for comparison):
- By road (car/bus): ~8–10 hours
- By train: ~10–12 hours
- By air (via Lahore/Delhi): ~3–4 hours including transit

Conclusion: In Harappan times, the journey would most likely have taken two to three weeks, depending on the mode of transport and the route taken along river valleys.

Creative Exercise — Harappan Visitor in a Modern Indian Kitchen

Imagine a Harappan person stepping into a typical Indian kitchen today. Here are the five biggest surprises they would likely experience:

1. Gas stove / electric induction cooktop: The Harappan used an open hearth or a clay oven (chulha) fuelled by wood or charcoal. A gas burner that lights with a click — with no smoke, no wood, and instant flame — would seem almost magical to them.

2. Refrigerator: Harappans had no way to preserve food beyond drying, salting, or storing in cool pots. A machine that keeps food cold and fresh for days would be astonishing.

3. Running water from a tap: Although Harappans had excellent wells and drainage, water had to be drawn manually. A tap that delivers clean water instantly at any time of day would be a wonder.

4. Packaged and processed food: The Harappan diet consisted of freshly grown or ground food — wheat, barley, pulses, meat. Seeing sealed plastic packets of biscuits, instant noodles, or bottled oil would be completely unfamiliar.

5. Electric lighting and appliances (mixer-grinder, microwave): Grinding grain was done by hand on stone querns. A mixer-grinder that does the same work in seconds, powered invisibly by electricity, would be beyond their imagination.

Interestingly, some things would feel *familiar* — clay pots, spices like sesame and turmeric, wheat flour, and the basic act of cooking over heat.

Note: This question is based on the pictures/illustrations in the chapter. Based on commonly reproduced Harappan artefacts described and depicted in NCERT texts, the following list is compiled.

Ornaments that still feel familiar:
1. Necklaces made of beads (carnelian, shell, gold) — bead necklaces are still widely worn across India.
2. Bangles (shell, terracotta, faience) — bangles remain an essential ornament for women in India today.
3. Earrings / ear ornaments — similar dangling or stud-type ear ornaments are still in use.
4. Finger rings — rings made of copper or gold were found; rings are universally worn today.
5. Armlets / upper-arm bands — still worn in traditional Indian dress and dance.

Gestures that still feel familiar:
1. The 'Priest-King' statue shows a composed, dignified posture with a shawl draped over one shoulder — similar to how a dhoti or shawl is worn today.
2. The Dancing Girl bronze figurine shows a confident, hand-on-hip stance familiar in Indian classical dance forms.

Objects that still feel familiar:
1. Clay pots and storage jars — similar in shape to handmade pottery still used in rural India.
2. Toy carts with wheels — bullock carts are still seen in Indian villages.
3. Terracotta figurines of animals — similar clay toys are made by artisans today.
4. Stone querns (grinding stones) — the sil-batta (grinding stone) is still used in many Indian kitchens.
5. Seals with animal motifs — the use of seals/stamps for identity and trade continues today.

Conclusion: The continuity between Harappan material culture and present-day Indian life is striking, suggesting deep cultural roots going back over 4,000 years.

Given: Dholavira, located on Khadir island in the Rann of Kutch (Gujarat), is one of the largest Harappan cities. It had an elaborate system of at least 16 reservoirs of varying sizes, connected by channels to collect and store rainwater.

The mindset reflected by this system:

1. Long-term planning and foresight: Dholavira is located in a semi-arid region with limited rainfall and no perennial river nearby. Building such an extensive reservoir system shows that the inhabitants *planned ahead* for water scarcity — they did not wait for a crisis but prepared for it in advance.

2. Engineering skill and scientific thinking: Designing a network of channels, sluice gates, and reservoirs of different sizes to capture, store, and distribute rainwater requires sophisticated knowledge of hydrology and civil engineering.

3. Community cooperation and governance: Such a large infrastructure project could not be built by individuals. It required *collective effort*, organised labour, and a governing authority that could plan and execute public works for the common good.

4. Respect for and careful management of natural resources: The Harappans of Dholavira understood that water was precious. Their system reflects an attitude of *conservation* — harvesting every drop of rainwater rather than wasting it.

5. Resilience and adaptability: By storing water, the community could survive droughts and dry seasons, making the city resilient against environmental challenges.

Conclusion: The reservoir system at Dholavira reflects a mindset of scientific foresight, community organisation, resource conservation, and long-term planning — qualities that are admirable and relevant even today.

Given: Approximately 700 brick-lined wells have been found in Mohenjo-daro. They were regularly maintained and used over several centuries.

Implications of this finding:

1. Large and dense urban population: 700 wells suggest a very large number of residents. If each well served a neighbourhood or a cluster of houses, the city must have had a substantial population — estimates range from 20,000 to 40,000 people or more.

2. High standard of public health and sanitation: Providing clean drinking water to every neighbourhood (rather than forcing people to travel long distances) shows that the Harappans valued public health. Access to clean water reduces waterborne diseases.

3. Advanced construction technology: Building 700 wells with precisely shaped, wedge-cut bricks that curve perfectly to form a circular shaft requires skilled craftspeople and standardised materials — evidence of specialised labour.

4. Civic responsibility and community maintenance: The fact that wells were *regularly maintained* over centuries implies a system of civic responsibility — either a governing authority that organised maintenance, or a strong community ethic where residents took care of shared resources.

5. Continuity and stability of the civilisation: Regular maintenance over several centuries indicates a *stable, well-organised society* that did not collapse easily and had institutions capable of sustaining public infrastructure.

6. Decentralised water supply: Unlike a single central water source, 700 distributed wells suggest a decentralised system — resilient, equitable, and accessible to all parts of the city.

Conclusion: The 700 wells of Mohenjo-daro are powerful evidence of an organised, health-conscious, technically skilled, and civically responsible urban society — one that rivals or surpasses many ancient civilisations in its concern for the welfare of its citizens.

Understanding 'Civic Sense': Civic sense refers to the awareness and responsibility that individuals feel towards their community, public spaces, shared resources, and fellow citizens.

Evidence that Harappans had a high civic sense:

1. Drainage and sanitation: Every house in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa was connected to a city-wide covered drainage system. Waste water flowed from private homes into public drains, which were regularly cleaned. This shows that both individuals and the city administration took responsibility for cleanliness.

2. Standardised construction: Bricks across the entire civilisation followed a standard ratio (1:2:4). This suggests that builders followed common rules for the public good — not just building as they pleased.

3. Well maintenance: 700 wells maintained over centuries shows collective responsibility for shared resources.

4. No dumping in streets: Archaeological evidence suggests streets were kept relatively clean, with waste disposed of in designated areas.

5. Reservoirs at Dholavira: The community built and maintained water harvesting systems for collective benefit.

Do I agree? Yes, the archaeological evidence strongly supports the view that Harappans had a well-developed civic sense — both at the individual level (connecting homes to drains) and at the community level (maintaining public infrastructure).

Comparison with a large Indian city today:

| Aspect | Harappan City | Large Indian City Today |
|---|---|---|
| Drainage | Covered, well-maintained | Often clogged, poorly maintained |
| Water supply | Distributed wells, reservoirs | Piped water, but often inequitable |
| Street cleanliness | Evidence of organised waste disposal | Littering remains a major problem |
| Public infrastructure | Built and maintained collectively | Often neglected by citizens |
| Civic responsibility | Appears high (from evidence) | Varies widely; civic sense often low |

Conclusion: The Harappans, living over 4,000 years ago, appear to have demonstrated a level of civic responsibility that many modern Indian cities struggle to match. This is both humbling and inspiring — it reminds us that civic sense is not a modern achievement but an ancient value that we need to consciously revive and practise today.