CBSE Class 8 Social Science — NCERT Solutions

Given/Concept: Renewable resources are those that can replenish naturally over time (e.g., forests, freshwater, soil). However, if they are exploited faster than they can regenerate, they can effectively become non-renewable.

What can make a renewable resource non-renewable:

• Over-exploitation: Harvesting a resource (e.g., cutting forests, over-fishing) at a rate faster than it can naturally replenish makes it functionally non-renewable.
• Pollution: Contaminating freshwater bodies or soil with industrial waste, chemicals, or plastics can permanently damage or destroy these resources.
• Habitat destruction: Clearing land for agriculture or construction destroys ecosystems, making it impossible for species and resources to regenerate.
• Climate change: Rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns can dry up rivers, degrade soil, and destroy forests permanently.
• Soil degradation: Intensive farming without replenishment strips soil of nutrients, turning fertile land into barren wasteland.

Actions to prevent this:

1. Sustainable harvesting — Cutting only as many trees as are replanted; catching only as many fish as the population can sustain.
2. Pollution control — Treating industrial and domestic waste before releasing it into water bodies or land.
3. Legal protection — Enforcing laws against deforestation, over-fishing, and land degradation.
4. Community awareness — Educating people about the importance of not over-using shared resources.
5. Afforestation and reforestation — Actively planting trees to restore degraded forest cover.
6. Water conservation — Rainwater harvesting and efficient irrigation to prevent freshwater depletion.

Conclusion: A renewable resource becomes non-renewable when human activity destroys its ability to regenerate. Mindful, regulated, and sustainable use is the key to keeping renewable resources available for future generations.

Given/Concept: Ecosystems perform a wide range of functions — often called 'ecosystem services' — that directly or indirectly benefit human beings.

Five important ecosystem functions that serve humans:

1. Provisioning services (Food and Water): Ecosystems provide food (crops, fish, fruits, meat), fresh water, timber, fibre, and medicinal plants that humans depend on for survival.

2. Regulating services (Climate and Air regulation): Forests and oceans absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, regulating the climate and maintaining air quality. Wetlands filter pollutants from water.

3. Soil formation and nutrient cycling: Decomposers in the soil break down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients that are essential for plant growth and agriculture.

4. Pollination: Bees, butterflies, birds, and other organisms pollinate flowering plants, which is essential for the reproduction of most food crops and wild plants.

5. Flood and erosion control: Forests, grasslands, and wetlands absorb rainwater, reduce surface run-off, prevent soil erosion, and protect against floods and landslides.

Conclusion: These ecosystem functions are vital for human well-being, food security, and survival. Protecting ecosystems means protecting these services for present and future generations.

Given / Context: Two major medieval empires of India — the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857) — both ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Similarities:

1. Military Conquest: Both empires expanded their territories through military campaigns and used well-organised armies with cavalry, elephants, and artillery (Mughals more so).
2. Centralised Administration: Both maintained a centralised system of governance where the Sultan/Emperor held supreme authority.
3. Revenue Collection: Both relied heavily on land revenue (kharaj/land tax) as the primary source of income. The iqta system (Sultanate) and the mansabdari/jagirdari system (Mughals) were both mechanisms to administer land and collect revenue.
4. Use of Religion: Both empires had rulers who used religious identity to legitimise their rule, though to varying degrees.
5. Suppression of Revolts: Both dealt firmly with rebellious nobles and regional chiefs to maintain central authority.

Differences:

Conclusion: While both empires shared the goal of centralised Islamic rule over a diverse subcontinent, the Mughals were more sophisticated in their political strategies — using diplomacy, cultural synthesis, and inclusive administration — which gave them greater stability and longevity than the Delhi Sultanate.

Given / Context: The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) in south India and the Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826) in present-day Assam both successfully resisted conquest by major powers for several centuries.

Factors Contributing to Their Success:

A. Vijayanagara Empire:

1. Geographical Advantage:

• Located on the Deccan Plateau, south of the Tungabhadra River, which acted as a natural barrier.
• The capital Hampi was surrounded by rocky, hilly terrain (Sandur Hills) that made it difficult for invading armies to manoeuvre.
• Dense forests and rivers provided natural defence.

2. Military Strength:

• Maintained a large, well-equipped army with trained infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and later adopted gunpowder weapons.
• Built strong fortifications around Hampi.
• Rulers like Krishnadevaraya were brilliant military commanders who won decisive battles against the Bahmani Sultanate and others.

3. Social and Administrative Factors:

• Strong patronage of Hindu religion and culture gave the empire ideological unity and popular support.
• The nayankara system (similar to feudal lords) ensured military service from regional chiefs.
• Prosperous trade (especially in horses, spices, and textiles) funded a strong military.
• Cultural and religious identity acted as a unifying force against external Muslim powers.

B. Ahom Kingdom:

1. Geographical Advantage:

• Located in the Brahmaputra valley, surrounded by dense forests, hills (Himalayas to the north, Patkai hills to the east), and rivers.
• The terrain made it nearly impossible for large Mughal armies with heavy artillery and cavalry to operate effectively.
• Frequent floods and marshy land neutralised the Mughal military advantage.

2. Military Strength:

• The Ahoms used guerrilla warfare tactics (hit-and-run) rather than open-field battles.
• They built a strong navy on the Brahmaputra River — the Mughals had no comparable river warfare capability in this region.
• The Battle of Saraighat (1671) under Lachit Borphukan is a classic example of using the river and terrain to defeat a much larger Mughal force.

3. Social Factors:

• The Ahom society was highly organised with a system of forced labour (paik system) that ensured a large standing army.
• Strong ethnic and cultural identity created social cohesion and resistance to foreign rule.
• The Ahom kings commanded deep loyalty from their people.

Conclusion: Both kingdoms demonstrate that geography, innovative military tactics suited to local terrain, strong leadership, and social unity are key factors in resisting powerful invaders. Their success was not accidental but the result of deliberate strategies that played to their strengths.

Given / Context: The Maratha homeland lay in the Sahyadri (Western Ghats) mountain ranges and along the Konkan coastline of the Deccan plateau.

Key Geographical Features and Their Military Significance:

1. The Western Ghats (Sahyadris):

• The rugged, forested mountain terrain made large-scale cavalry or elephant-based armies (used by the Mughals) ineffective.
• Narrow passes (ghats) could be defended by small Maratha forces against much larger armies.
• Shivaji built and captured numerous hill forts — such as Raigad, Pratapgad, and Torna — on high peaks. These forts served as administrative centres, treasuries, and military strongholds.
• The chapter notes that 'forts were the core of the Maratha state'. Controlling forts meant controlling territory, revenue, and refuge during enemy advances.
• The guerrilla warfare (ganimi kava) tactics pioneered by Shivaji were perfectly suited to this terrain — swift raids, sudden retreats into hills, and ambushes in forested valleys.

2. The Konkan Coastline:

• The long western coastline gave the Marathas access to sea trade and naval power.
• Kanhoji Angre built a formidable Maratha navy that dominated the western coast and challenged European powers (the Portuguese, British, and Dutch).
• Coastal forts like Sindhudurg (built on a sea island) protected harbours and controlled maritime trade routes.
• Revenue from coastal trade funded Maratha military campaigns inland.

3. State Formation:

• The combination of hill forts and coastal control allowed the Marathas to create a layered defence: enemies had to breach coastal defences, then cross the ghats, then reduce individual hill forts — each step costly and time-consuming.
• This geography encouraged a decentralised but resilient state: even when the capital fell, other forts and chiefs could continue resistance (as Tarabai demonstrated after Sambhaji's death).

Conclusion: Geography was not merely a backdrop but an active tool of Maratha statecraft. Mountains provided natural fortifications and suited their guerrilla style; coastlines provided naval power and trade revenue. Together, they allowed a relatively small regional power to resist the Mughal Empire and later challenge the British.

Biography chosen: Ahilyabai Holkar — The Philosopher Queen of Maheshwar

(Note: Students may choose any one leader. This is a model answer for Ahilyabai Holkar.)

Paragraph 1 — Who Was She?
Ahilyabai Holkar (1725–1795) was the ruler of the Maratha kingdom of Malwa, with her capital at Maheshwar on the banks of the Narmada River. She was not born into royalty — she was the daughter of a village headman. Her intelligence and devotion caught the eye of Malhar Rao Holkar, the great Maratha general, who chose her as a bride for his son Khanderao. This simple beginning makes her rise to power all the more remarkable.

Paragraph 2 — The Challenge She Overcame:
Ahilyabai faced devastating personal losses. Her husband Khanderao died in battle, and her father-in-law Malhar Rao, who had guided and supported her, also passed away. When her own son died young, she was left as the sole ruler of Malwa with no male heir. In 18th-century India, a woman ruling alone was almost unheard of. Many expected the kingdom to collapse or be absorbed by rivals. Instead, Ahilyabai stepped forward, personally led armies into battle, and proved herself a capable military commander as well as an administrator.

Paragraph 3 — Her Achievements:
As ruler for nearly 30 years, Ahilyabai transformed Malwa into a prosperous and peaceful kingdom. She built roads, rest houses (dharamshalas), and wells for travellers. She is most famous for restoring and building Hindu temples across India — from Somnath in Gujarat to Kashi Vishwanath in Varanasi and Kedarnath in the Himalayas — many of which had been damaged or destroyed over centuries. She funded these projects from her own treasury and ensured that people of all communities benefited from her public works.

Paragraph 4 — Why She Is Inspirational:
Ahilyabai Holkar showed that leadership is about service, wisdom, and courage — not about gender or birth. She listened to her people, held open courts (durbars) where anyone could bring a complaint, and was known for her fairness. Centuries after her death, she is remembered as 'Lokamata' (Mother of the People). Her life teaches us that even in the face of great personal sorrow and social barriers, one person's determination can bring light to millions of lives.

Given / Context: The chapter deals with European powers establishing control over India.

Answer:

Colonialism is a system in which one country establishes political, economic, and cultural control over another territory and its people, usually for the benefit of the colonising power.

Three definitions:

1. Political definition: Colonialism is the practice by which a powerful nation conquers, occupies, and governs a weaker territory, imposing its own laws, administration, and authority on the local population.

2. Economic definition: Colonialism is a system of exploitation in which the colonising power extracts the natural resources, labour, and wealth of the colonised land, transferring that wealth to the home country while deliberately weakening the local economy (e.g., the British deindustrialisation of India and the 'drain of wealth' described by Dadabhai Naoroji).

3. Cultural definition: Colonialism is the process by which a dominant power imposes its language, religion, education, and values on a subject people in order to reshape their identity and ensure long-term control (e.g., the British introduction of English-medium education through Macaulay's Minute, or the Portuguese policy of religious conversion in Goa).

Conclusion: All three dimensions — political, economic, and cultural — together constitute the full meaning of colonialism.

Given / Concept: Universal adult franchise means the right of every adult citizen (18 years and above) to vote, regardless of gender, religion, caste, class, education, or economic status.

Answer:

Universal adult franchise is important for a healthy democracy for the following reasons:

1. Equality of voice: Every citizen gets one vote and each vote has equal value. This ensures that no group — rich or poor, upper caste or lower caste, men or women — is more powerful than another at the ballot box.

2. Government accountable to all: When every adult can vote, elected representatives must work for the welfare of all sections of society, not just the privileged few.

3. Inclusion of marginalised groups: Without universal franchise, historically excluded groups (women, Dalits, minorities, the poor) would have no say in governance. Their participation ensures their needs are reflected in policy.

4. Legitimacy of government: A government chosen by all adult citizens has a stronger democratic mandate and greater public trust than one chosen by a restricted electorate.

5. Prevents concentration of power: When only a few people vote, power tends to stay with the elite. Universal franchise distributes political power widely across society.

Conclusion: Universal adult franchise is the foundation of a truly representative democracy. It transforms the principle of 'government of the people, by the people, for the people' from an ideal into a reality.

This is a research/activity-based question. A model answer is given below.

Given: India has a bicameral Parliament consisting of two Houses — the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

Concept: Representation in Lok Sabha is based on population (direct election), while representation in Rajya Sabha is based on the size of the state legislature (indirect election).

How to find out:

• Visit the official websites: loksabha.nic.in and rajyasabha.nic.in
• Look up your state in the list of constituencies (Lok Sabha) and elected members (Rajya Sabha).

Example (for reference):

Note: Students should fill in the details for their own state using the official Parliament website or by asking their teacher.

Conclusion: The number of representatives varies from state to state depending on population (Lok Sabha) and the strength of the state legislature (Rajya Sabha). This ensures that every state has a voice in the national Parliament.

Given/Concept: The four main factors of production are Land, Labour, Capital, and Entrepreneurship (sometimes Human Capital is treated separately).

Differences among the Factors of Production:

Key differences:

• Land is a natural and passive factor; it cannot be moved or created by humans.
• Labour is a human and active factor; it perishes if not used (a worker's idle day is lost forever).
• Capital is a produced factor; it is the result of past labour and saving.
• Entrepreneurship is a special human quality involving decision-making, risk-taking, and innovation — it activates all other factors.

Difficulties in Classification:

• Some inputs overlap categories. For example, a farmer's own land is both 'land' and 'capital' (if it was purchased).
• Human capital (skills gained through education) blurs the line between 'labour' and 'capital'.
• Technology can be seen as part of capital as well as a separate factor.
• An owner-worker (like a self-employed artisan) is simultaneously a labourer and an entrepreneur.
• Natural resources that are processed (like water stored in a dam) are hard to classify purely as 'land'.

Conclusion: Each factor is distinct in origin, nature, and the reward it earns, yet in real production they are deeply interdependent and sometimes overlap, making neat classification challenging.