Thermodynamics

In thermodynamics

In thermodynamics, the system is the part of the universe we observe (e.g., reactants in a beaker), while surroundings include everything else that in

Internal energy is the sum

Internal energy is the sum of all energy in a system (chemical, electrical, mechanical). It's a state function, meaning its value depends only on the

Work (w) in chemistry primarily refers

Work (w) in chemistry primarily refers to pressure-volume work: w = -pΔV. For reversible isothermal processes with ideal gases: w_rev = -nRT ln(V_f/V_

Enthalpy H = U + pV

Enthalpy H = U + pV is a state function particularly useful at constant pressure. At constant pressure, ΔH = q_p (heat absorbed equals enthalpy change

Calorimetry measures heat changes

Calorimetry measures heat changes: q = CΔT, where C is heat capacity. Bomb calorimeters measure ΔU at constant volume (sealed vessel). Coffee-cup calo