CBSE Class 12 Psychology — NCERT Solutions

Psychologists characterise intelligence as a person's capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges. It is also described as the ability to perceive, learn, understand, and know. Different psychologists have emphasised different aspects: Binet stressed judging, understanding and reasoning well; Wechsler viewed it as the global and aggregate capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. Thus, intelligence is not a single skill but a global cognitive competence that helps a person adapt to situations.

Intelligence is the result of a complex interaction of heredity and environment. Evidence for nature comes from twin and adoption studies: identical twins show very high similarity in intelligence, even when reared apart, and children's intelligence is often more similar to their biological than adoptive parents. Evidence for nurture comes from the fact that children raised in richer environments, with good nutrition, supportive families, and quality schooling, tend to improve in intelligence; environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. So neither heredity nor environment works alone. Heredity sets the range, and the environment shapes how much of that potential is actually developed.

Self is the totality of an individual's conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings about herself or himself. It develops through interaction with other people and is shaped by personal and social identities.

The Indian notion of self differs from the Western notion in these ways:

• In the Western view, the boundary between self and other is relatively fixed. The self and the group are seen as separate entities with clearly defined boundaries.
• In the Indian view, the boundary is shifting. The self may at one time expand to include others or even the cosmos, and at another time withdraw into individual concerns.
• Western cultures tend to be individualistic, stressing individual boundaries and individuality.
• Indian culture is more collectivistic, where the self is generally not separated from the group and both co-exist harmoniously.

Delay of gratification means delaying or deferring the satisfaction of a need instead of meeting it immediately.

It is important for adult development because:

• it is a part of self-control,
• it helps a person resist immediate temptations and situational pressures,
• it supports the fulfilment of long-term goals, and
• it reflects the ability to regulate one’s behaviour in a mature and purposeful way.

The chapter also notes that Indian cultural traditions such as fasting in vrata or roza and non-attachment help in developing this ability.

Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state and an ongoing transactional process between the individual and the environment. It is the pattern of responses an organism makes when a stimulus event disturbs homeostasis and exceeds the person’s ability to cope. Stress is not always bad: a moderate level can improve performance, while very high or very low stress can reduce it.

Examples from daily life include:

• Examination stress, such as fear before a test.
• Traffic or commuting stress.
• Stress due to noise, crowding, or pollution.
• Stress from a bad relationship, loneliness, or family illness.
• Stress from low grades, conflicts, or frustration.

The symptoms of stress may be physical, emotional, and behavioural.

• Physical symptoms: headache, stomach upset, backache, difficulty in sleeping, difficulty in eating, weakness, fatigue, increased heart rate, sweating, etc.
• Emotional symptoms: worry, anxiety, fear, depression, mood swings, embarrassment, anger, helplessness, hopelessness, and emotional outbursts.
• Behavioural symptoms: lack of concentration, memory loss, poor decision-making, inconsistency, irregular attendance, low self-esteem, frantic bursts of energy, misuse of drugs, disrupted sleep patterns, and reduced work performance.

The sources of stress are of three main types:

1. Physical and environmental stress — overexertion, lack of nutritious diet, injury, lack of sleep, air pollution, crowding, noise, heat, cold, disasters like fire, earthquake, floods.
2. Psychological stress — frustration, conflicts, internal pressures, and social pressures.
3. Social stress — death or illness in the family, strained relationships, trouble with neighbours, or social situations that are stressful for a person.

Given/Concept: Depression and mania are the two poles of mood disorders. Depression involves a persistent low mood, while mania involves an abnormally elevated mood.

Symptoms of Depression:

• Persistent sad, anxious, or 'empty' mood
• Loss of interest or pleasure in activities once enjoyed (anhedonia)
• Feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness, or excessive guilt
• Fatigue and decreased energy
• Difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions
• Insomnia or hypersomnia (sleeping too much)
• Changes in appetite — significant weight loss or gain
• Psychomotor agitation or retardation (restlessness or slowed movements)
• Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide

Symptoms of Mania:

• Abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood
• Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
• Decreased need for sleep (feels rested after only 3 hours)
• More talkative than usual; pressure to keep talking
• Flight of ideas — racing thoughts
• Distractibility
• Increase in goal-directed activity (social, occupational, or sexual)
• Excessive involvement in pleasurable activities with high potential for painful consequences (e.g., unrestrained spending, reckless driving)

Conclusion: Depression and mania represent opposite extremes of mood. When both occur in the same individual (alternating), the condition is called Bipolar Disorder.

Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the client and the therapist whose purpose is to help the client solve psychological problems. It is a corrective and helping process that aims at changing maladaptive behaviours, reducing personal distress, and helping the client adapt better to the environment. It is used for problems like anxiety, phobias, depression, relationship difficulties, and other psychological disorders.

Its scope is broad because it includes many different approaches, such as psychodynamic therapy, behaviour therapy, cognitive therapy, humanistic-existential therapy, and alternative therapies. Psychotherapy can help with emotional problems, faulty habits, distorted thinking, and difficulties in social, marital, and occupational adjustment.

The therapeutic relationship or alliance is central to psychotherapy. It is a confidential, interpersonal, dynamic, and professional relationship. The client trusts the therapist and can freely discuss personal problems. The therapist shows acceptance, empathy, genuineness, warmth, and unconditional positive regard. The therapist must keep strict confidentiality and must not exploit the client’s trust. This relationship is important because it becomes the vehicle for change and helps healing occur.

An attitude is a state of mind, or a set of views or thoughts about some topic, person, or object (the attitude object) that has an evaluative quality — positive, negative, or neutral. It is also linked with an emotional reaction and a tendency to act in a particular way.

The components of attitude are:

1. Cognitive component: the thought or belief part. It is what a person knows or thinks about the object.
2. Affective component: the emotional part. It is how a person feels about the object.
3. Behavioural component: the action tendency. It is the way a person is inclined to behave toward the object.

These three together are called the A-B-C components of attitude: Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive.

For example, in an attitude towards a green environment, a person may believe trees are important (cognitive), feel happy seeing greenery (affective), and take part in tree plantation (behavioural).

Formal groups and informal groups differ in how they are formed and organised. In formal groups, the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. Their formation is based on specific rules or laws, and members have definite roles and a set of norms. A university is an example of a formal group.

In informal groups, the formation is not based on rules or laws, and there is a close relationship among members. Their roles are not formally fixed.

Ingroups and outgroups are based on membership and comparison. An ingroup is one's own group, while an outgroup is another group. We use the word “we” for the ingroup and “they” for the outgroup. Ingroup members are usually seen as similar, viewed favourably, and thought to have desirable traits. Outgroup members are often viewed less favourably and seen as different.

So, formal/informal groups are distinguished by structure and rules, whereas ingroup/outgroup are distinguished by membership and social comparison.