Chemical Bonding

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The octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve 8 electrons in their outermost shell (like noble gases). Atoms follow this rule because the noble gas configuration (…

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Ionic bond forms by complete transfer of electrons from metal to non-metal. In NaCl: Na (2,8,1) loses 1 electron → Na⁺ (2,8), Cl (2,8,7) gains 1 electron → Cl⁻ (2,8,8). The oppositely charged ions are…

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Lattice enthalpy is the energy required to completely separate one mole of ionic solid into gaseous ions. For NaCl: NaCl(s) → Na⁺(g) + Cl⁻(g), ΔH = +788 kJ/mol. Higher lattice enthalpy indicates stron…

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Covalent bond forms by sharing of electron pairs between atoms of similar electronegativity. In H₂: Each H atom has 1 electron in 1s orbital. Two H atoms share their electrons to form H-H bond. Both a…

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Steps: 1) Count total valence electrons 2) Write skeletal structure 3) Add electron pairs for single bonds 4) Complete octets with remaining electrons 5) Form multiple bonds if octets incomplete 6) Fo…

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Formal Charge = VE - NE - (BE/2). For CO₃²⁻: C has 4 VE, each O has 6 VE, +2 extra electrons = 24 total. In resonance structures with one C=O double bond: FC on C = 4-0-8/2 = 0, FC on double-bonded O …

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Limitations: 1) Incomplete octet: BeCl₂ (4e⁻), BF₃ (6e⁻), LiCl (2e⁻) 2) Expanded octet: SF₆ (12e⁻), PCl₅ (10e⁻), H₂SO₄ (12e⁻ on S) 3) Odd electron molecules: NO (11e⁻), NO₂ (17e⁻) 4) Cannot explain mo…

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VSEPR Postulates: 1) Electron pairs arrange to minimize repulsion 2) Molecule acquires minimum energy and maximum stability 3) Lone pairs contribute to molecular shape 4) Repulsion order: Lone pair-Lo…