Spontaneity Of Chemical Reactions

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A spontaneous process is a process that occurs in a system by itself without requiring continuous external action. Once started, it continues naturally. Example: Cooling of hot water at room temperatu…

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If a process is spontaneous in one direction, its reverse process is non-spontaneous in that direction. For example, rusting of iron (4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃) is spontaneous, but the reduction of Fe₂O₃ bac…

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Entropy (S) is a thermodynamic property that measures the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. Higher entropy means greater disorder. For states of matter: Solid < Liquid < Gas (in terms of e…

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ΔS = q_rev / T, where ΔS is the change in entropy, q_rev is the heat supplied reversibly at constant temperature, and T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin. This equation shows that entropy change d…

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When two ideal gases mix spontaneously (as when bulb I and bulb II are connected), the particles spread out to occupy a larger volume, increasing disorder. The internal energy (ΔU) and enthalpy (ΔH) d…

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that all spontaneous or natural processes produce an increase in the entropy of the universe. Mathematically: ΔS_universe = ΔS_system + ΔS_surroundings > 0 for …

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Formula: Δ_vap S = Δ_vap H / T. Step 1: Convert enthalpy to J mol⁻¹: 40.8 kJ mol⁻¹ = 40,800 J mol⁻¹. Step 2: Substitute values: Δ_vap S = 40,800 J mol⁻¹ / 373 K = 109.4 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹. Answer: 109.4 J K⁻…

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Formula: Δ_fus S = Δ_fus H / T. Step 1: Convert to J mol⁻¹: 6.02 kJ mol⁻¹ = 6,020 J mol⁻¹. Step 2: Substitute: Δ_fus S = 6,020 J mol⁻¹ / 273 K = 22.05 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹. Answer: 22.05 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹ (approxima…