Bhakti - Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts — NCERT Solutions

Baba Guru Nanak taught a form of nirguna bhakti. He rejected external rituals such as sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities, and even the authority of the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims. He said the Absolute had no gender or form and could be reached by remembering and repeating the Divine Name. He expressed his ideas in Punjabi hymns called shabad, sung in different ragas with the rabab played by Mardana.

His teachings were transmitted through:

• his hymns and teachings,
• congregational worship called sangat,
• the line of succeeding gurus,
• and the Adi Granth Sahib, later expanded into the Guru Granth Sahib.

This means Nanak’s ideas survived through oral singing, community practice, and sacred compilation.

Sufism was a movement of religious-minded Muslims who stressed asceticism, mysticism, and deep love for God. They criticised dry scholarship and the rigid interpretations of the Qur'an and sunna by theologians, and instead sought God through personal experience.

Major beliefs and practices included:

• striving for salvation through devotion and following God’s commands;
• following the example of the Prophet Muhammad;
• organising around khanqahs led by a shaikh/pir/murshid;
• maintaining a chain of master and disciple called a silsila;
• performing initiation rituals, wearing a patched garment, and shaving the hair;
• visiting the tomb of a saint, or dargah, for ziyarat;
• seeking blessings (barakat) and miracles (karamat) from a wali;
• performing zikr and sama' (mystical music), especially among the Chishtis.

Some sufis stayed close to the shari'a, while others, called be-shari'a, rejected it and followed extreme asceticism. Sufism was therefore both a spiritual path and a living social tradition.

Rulers tried to connect with the Nayanars and the sufis because these traditions gave them religious legitimacy and helped them win popular support.

In the case of the Nayanars:

• The Chola rulers supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions.
• They built large Shiva temples at places like Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
• They collected and organised Tamil Shaiva hymns into the Tevaram.
• They also installed bronze images of saints like Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in temples and took them in processions.
• By doing this, kings linked their rule with popular devotion and claimed divine support.

In the case of the sufis:

• Sultans and Mughal rulers gave land grants, tax exemptions, auqaf, and inam to hospices and shrines.
• They visited shrines like Ajmer to seek blessings for conquest, sons, and success.
• Akbar visited the dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti many times and offered gifts.
• Kings wanted the blessings of sufis because sufis were believed to be close to God and able to intercede on behalf of people.

Thus, rulers linked themselves to these saints to strengthen political authority and public prestige.

Bhakti and sufi thinkers used a variety of languages because they wanted to reach ordinary people, express new ideas, and communicate in ways that suited different regions and audiences.

Examples from the chapter show this clearly:

• The Alvars and Nayanars sang in Tamil, the language of the people.
• The Chishtis in Delhi spoke in Hindavi.
• Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, later included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Kabir wrote in several languages and dialects, including sant bhasha, and used ulatbansi to express mystical ideas.
• Baba Guru Nanak composed shabad in Punjabi.
• Sufi poets in the Deccan used Dakhani, while others wrote in Persian, Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi, and Gujarati.

They chose these languages because:

• they were accessible to ordinary people,
• they suited oral singing and devotion,
• and they helped ideas spread beyond narrow scholarly circles.

So, the use of many languages made bhakti and sufi teachings more popular, flexible, and locally rooted.