Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings (Cultural Developments) (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)

Given: Two verses from the Rigveda invoking Agni, the god of fire, into which offerings were made to reach other deities.

Objectives of the sacrifice as listed in the verses:

1. To carry offerings to the gods – Agni is requested to bring the sacrifice of the worshippers to the gods.
2. To obtain abundant food – The priest (Agni) is asked to bestow abundant nourishment on the worshippers.
3. To acquire mighty wealth – Agni is asked to procure great wealth through the act of sacrificing.
4. To obtain nourishment / the wonderful cow – A symbol of prosperity and sustenance.
5. To beget a son / offspring – The worshippers pray for a son who will continue their family line.

Conclusion: The objectives of the Vedic sacrifice were largely material and worldly in nature – prosperity, food, wealth, cattle, and progeny. These reflect the concerns of an agrarian, pastoral society where continuity of the family line and material well-being were of primary importance.

Given: Makkhali Gosala belonged to the Ajivika tradition and Ajita Kesakambalin belonged to the Lokayata tradition. Their views are described through an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka.

Analysis:

Makkhali Gosala – Fatalist?
His teaching states that pleasure and pain are 'measured out' and cannot be altered; that neither the wise nor the fool can change their karma through effort; and that like a ball of string unwinding to its full length, every being will run its course. This is a clear expression of fatalism – the belief that everything is predetermined and human effort cannot change one's destiny. The label 'fatalist' is therefore largely appropriate for Gosala.

Ajita Kesakambalin – Materialist?
His teaching denies the existence of alms, sacrifice, offerings, the afterlife, and any world beyond the present. He argues that a human being is composed of four material elements (earth, water, fire, air) and that at death these simply return to their source. There is no soul, no rebirth, no reward for virtue. This is a clear expression of materialism – the belief that only matter exists and there is no spiritual reality. The label 'materialist' is therefore appropriate for Ajita.

Limitation: These descriptions come from Buddhist texts, which may not represent these traditions fairly or accurately, since the original texts of the Ajivikas and Lokayatas have not survived. The labels may be oversimplifications imposed by rival traditions.

Conclusion: While the labels 'fatalist' and 'materialist' broadly capture the essence of their philosophies, they must be used with caution since we know about these traditions only through the writings of their opponents.

Problems in reconstructing histories of ideas and beliefs without surviving texts:

1. One-sided accounts: When original texts are lost, we depend on descriptions written by rival or opposing traditions. These accounts are often biased, incomplete, or deliberately distorted to make the rival tradition look inferior. For example, we know about the Ajivikas and Lokayatas only through Buddhist and Jaina texts.

2. Loss of nuance and complexity: The full range of arguments, debates, and internal diversity within a tradition cannot be recovered. Only the aspects that opponents chose to record survive.

3. Misrepresentation: Labels such as 'fatalist' or 'materialist' may be imposed by outsiders and may not reflect how the followers of those traditions understood themselves.

4. Gaps in knowledge: Entire philosophical systems, rituals, and practices may be lost forever, leaving large gaps in our understanding of the intellectual history of a period.

5. Difficulty in verification: Without original texts, it is impossible to verify whether the descriptions given by rival traditions are accurate.

6. Oral traditions: Many ideas were transmitted orally and never written down, making them even more vulnerable to loss.

Conclusion: The absence of surviving texts makes historical reconstruction partial, dependent on hostile sources, and prone to misrepresentation. Historians must therefore approach such evidence with great critical care.

Given: Queen Kamalavati tries to persuade her husband, the king, to renounce the world. She advances several arguments.

Arguments advanced by the queen:
1. No amount of worldly wealth or treasures can bring true satisfaction.
2. Worldly possessions cannot save a person at death – only *dhamma* (righteous conduct) can.
3. She compares her own feeling of being trapped in the world to a bird in a cage – longing for freedom.
4. Those who have renounced pleasures move freely like the wind or birds in flight.
5. She urges the king to abandon sensory pleasures, practise penance, and be without attachment.

Most convincing argument (student's perspective – model answer):
The most convincing argument is that worldly wealth cannot save a person at death. This is a universal truth recognised across cultures and time periods. No matter how much power, wealth, or pleasure one accumulates, none of it accompanies a person after death. Only one's actions and moral conduct (*dhamma*) have lasting significance. This argument appeals to reason and is difficult to refute.

Conclusion: The queen's arguments reflect the core Jaina philosophy of renunciation, non-attachment, and the pursuit of liberation (*moksha*) through righteous living and penance.

Concept: Ahimsa means non-violence or non-injury to all living beings. It is a central principle of Jainism and has deeply influenced Indian thought, including the philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.

Relevance of ahimsa in the twenty-first century:

Yes, ahimsa is highly relevant:
1. Environmental concerns: The principle of non-injury to all living beings – animals, plants, insects – is directly relevant to modern environmental ethics and the movement against animal cruelty.
2. Conflict resolution: In a world marked by wars, terrorism, and social violence, the principle of non-violence offers an alternative path to resolving disputes peacefully.
3. Animal rights: Growing awareness about the suffering of animals in factory farming, experimentation, and entertainment makes ahimsa a timely ethical principle.
4. Vegetarianism and veganism: The global movement towards plant-based diets is rooted in the same concern for non-injury to living beings.
5. Social harmony: Ahimsa promotes tolerance, compassion, and respect for all life forms, values that are essential in diverse, multicultural societies.

Conclusion: Ahimsa is not only relevant but increasingly urgent in the twenty-first century, as humanity faces challenges of violence, environmental destruction, and ethical treatment of all living beings.

Given: The Buddha advised Sigala on how to treat servants, employees, samanas, and Brahmanas. Similar instructions were given regarding parents, teacher, and wife.

Suggested instructions:

Regarding Parents:
- Support them in their old age.
- Perform the duties that are incumbent on them.
- Maintain the family lineage and tradition.
- Protect their wealth and property.
- Offer alms and merit on their behalf after their death.

Regarding Teacher:
- Rise to greet the teacher as a mark of respect.
- Attend upon and serve the teacher willingly.
- Be eager to learn and listen carefully.
- Provide the teacher with all necessities.
- Honour the teacher with reverence.

Regarding Wife:
- Treat her with respect and courtesy.
- Do not be unfaithful to her.
- Give her authority over household matters.
- Provide her with ornaments and clothing.
- Be kind and considerate in speech and action.

Conclusion: The Buddha's instructions to Sigala reflect a comprehensive ethical code for social relationships, emphasising mutual respect, duty, and compassion in all human interactions.

Given: Punna, a slave woman (*dasi*), challenges a Brahmana who believes that bathing in a river can wash away sins and evil deeds.

Buddhist teachings evident in Punna's composition:

1. Rejection of ritual purification: The Buddha taught that external rituals such as bathing in sacred rivers cannot cleanse a person of moral wrongdoing. Punna's argument that frogs, turtles, and crocodiles would all go to heaven if bathing purified sin directly reflects this teaching.

2. Emphasis on righteous conduct over ritual: Buddhism stresses that liberation comes through right action, right thought, and right conduct – not through mechanical rituals. Punna tells the Brahmana to simply stop doing wrong rather than trying to wash it away.

3. Questioning of Brahmanical authority and ritual: The Buddha challenged the supremacy of Brahmanical rituals and the idea that priests held a monopoly over spiritual merit. Punna, a low-caste slave woman, confidently questions a Brahmana's practice.

4. Equality and individual agency: Buddhism taught that spiritual insight was not the preserve of any caste or gender. Punna's ability to reason and challenge the Brahmana reflects the Buddhist emphasis on individual understanding.

Conclusion: Punna's verses powerfully illustrate the Buddhist critique of empty ritualism and the emphasis on ethical living as the true path to liberation.

Reasons why a dasi (slave woman) like Punna would want to join the sangha:

1. Escape from social oppression: As a slave, Punna lived a life of hardship, fear of punishment, and subjugation. The sangha offered freedom from this oppressive social position.

2. Equality within the sangha: The Buddhist sangha accepted people from all social backgrounds. Once admitted, all members were regarded as equal, regardless of their caste, gender, or social origin. This was a radical departure from the existing social order.

3. Spiritual liberation: Buddhism offered the possibility of attaining nibbana – liberation from the cycle of suffering and rebirth – through one's own effort, regardless of birth. This was deeply appealing to those who suffered in their present lives.

4. Intellectual engagement: As Punna's verses show, she was intellectually sharp and capable of philosophical reasoning. The sangha provided a space for such engagement, which was denied to her in ordinary social life.

5. Dignity and respect: Within the sangha, women could become *theris* – respected teachers who had attained liberation. This offered a dignity and social recognition impossible for a slave woman in mainstream society.

Conclusion: For a woman like Punna, the sangha represented liberation not only in a spiritual sense but also in a very immediate, social sense – freedom from slavery, caste discrimination, and gender oppression.

Given: The Vinaya Pitaka contains rules for monks and nuns (*bhikkhus* and *bhikkhunis*) regarding blankets/rugs, accepting food, and use of lodgings.

Reasons why these rules were framed:

1. Rule about the felt blanket (six-year rule): This rule was framed to prevent monks from accumulating possessions unnecessarily. The sangha emphasised a life of simplicity and non-attachment. By requiring a blanket to be kept for at least six years before replacing it, the rule discouraged wasteful consumption and attachment to material comfort.

2. Rule about accepting food (two or three bowlfuls): Monks depended on the laity for food (alms). Accepting too much food would be greedy and would place an undue burden on the lay community. The rule ensured moderation and sharing – any excess was to be distributed among other monks, reinforcing the spirit of community and non-greed.

3. Rule about lodgings: Monks used lodgings belonging to the sangha communally. Leaving without putting away bedding or without taking leave showed disrespect for communal property and fellow monks. The rule enforced discipline, responsibility, and consideration for others.

Overall purpose: These rules were designed to maintain discipline (*vinaya*), simplicity, non-attachment, and a spirit of community within the sangha. They ensured that monks lived according to the Buddha's teachings of moderation and righteous conduct.

Conclusion: The Vinaya rules reflect the Buddha's concern that the sangha remain a disciplined, ethical, and spiritually focused community, free from greed, laziness, and disrespect.

Introduction:
The mid-first millennium BCE witnessed a rich diversity of philosophical thought in India. The Upanishadic thinkers, the fatalists (Ajivikas), and the materialists (Lokayatas) all grappled with fundamental questions about existence, but arrived at very different conclusions.

Upanishadic Thinkers:
The Upanishads (c. sixth century BCE onwards) explored questions about the meaning of life, the nature of the self (*atman*), the universal soul (*Brahman*), and the possibility of life after death. They believed in a spiritual reality beyond the material world. The *atman* was considered eternal and identical with *Brahman*. Liberation (*moksha*) was achieved through knowledge (*jnana*) and understanding of this ultimate reality. The world was not merely material – it had a deeper spiritual dimension.

Fatalists (Ajivikas – Makkhali Gosala):
The Ajivikas believed that everything in the universe is predetermined. Neither wisdom nor effort can alter one's destiny. Pleasure and pain are fixed and cannot be changed. This is a form of determinism that denies the efficacy of human agency or spiritual effort.

Materialists (Lokayatas – Ajita Kesakambalin):
The Lokayatas denied the existence of any spiritual reality. They argued that human beings are composed only of four material elements (earth, water, fire, air) and that at death these simply dissolve back into nature. There is no soul, no afterlife, no reward for virtue, and no spiritual liberation.

Key Differences:

| Aspect | Upanishadic Thinkers | Fatalists | Materialists |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nature of reality | Spiritual (*Brahman/Atman*) | Predetermined fate | Only matter exists |
| Human agency | Important (knowledge leads to liberation) | Denied (everything is fixed) | Irrelevant (no afterlife) |
| Afterlife | Believed in rebirth and liberation | Believed in a fixed cycle | Denied completely |
| Goal | *Moksha* (liberation) | None (fate determines all) | None (death is the end) |

Conclusion:
Yes, the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers were fundamentally different from those of the fatalists and materialists. While the Upanishads affirmed a spiritual reality, the importance of knowledge, and the possibility of liberation, the fatalists denied human agency and the materialists denied any spiritual dimension to existence altogether. The Upanishadic tradition was thus more optimistic about the human capacity for spiritual growth and liberation.

Introduction:
Jainism is one of the oldest religious traditions of India. Its central teachings were systematised by Vardhamana Mahavira (sixth century BCE), though the tradition claims 24 tirthankaras, with Mahavira being the last.

Central Teachings of Jainism:

1. Animism – The world is animated: Jainism holds that the entire world is alive. Even stones, rocks, water, fire, and air have life. This belief forms the foundation of Jaina ethics.

2. Ahimsa (Non-violence): The most important ethical principle in Jainism is non-injury (*ahimsa*) to all living beings – humans, animals, plants, and insects. This principle has profoundly influenced Indian thought and culture.

3. Karma and rebirth: The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped by karma – the accumulated effect of one's actions. Good actions generate positive karma and bad actions generate negative karma, determining the nature of future births.

4. Asceticism and penance: To free oneself from the cycle of karma, one must practise severe asceticism and penance. This requires renouncing the world and all its pleasures.

5. Monastic existence as necessary for salvation: Jainism holds that complete liberation (*moksha*) can only be achieved through renunciation of the world. Therefore, monastic life is a necessary condition for salvation.

6. Five vows for monks and nuns: Jaina monks and nuns took five vows:
- To abstain from killing (*ahimsa*)
- To abstain from stealing
- To abstain from lying
- To observe celibacy (*brahmacharya*)
- To abstain from possessing property (*aparigraha*)

7. No creator God: Jainism does not believe in a creator God. The universe is eternal and self-regulating. Liberation is achieved through individual effort, not divine grace.

Spread of Jainism:
Jainism gradually spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars produced literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil. Some of the earliest stone sculptures in India were produced by Jaina devotees.

Conclusion:
The central teachings of Jainism revolve around non-violence, renunciation, and individual effort to achieve liberation from the cycle of karma and rebirth. Its emphasis on ahimsa has left a lasting mark on Indian civilisation.

Introduction:
The Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the finest surviving examples of early Buddhist architecture in India. Its preservation owes much to the efforts of the begums of Bhopal, who ruled the princely state of Bhopal in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Role of the Begums of Bhopal:

1. Financial support for preservation: The begums of Bhopal provided generous financial support for the preservation and restoration of the stupa at Sanchi. They funded the work of archaeologists and conservationists who worked to restore the monument to its former glory.

2. Support for John Marshall's work: The Archaeological Survey of India, under John Marshall, undertook systematic excavation and restoration of Sanchi. The begums supported this work and ensured that the site received the attention and resources it needed.

3. Preventing removal of sculptures: When European scholars and colonial officials proposed removing the gateways of Sanchi to Paris or London, the begums played a role in ensuring that the monument remained in India, in its original location (*in situ* preservation).

4. Building a museum: The begums funded the construction of a museum at Sanchi to house the sculptures and artefacts found at the site, ensuring that they were preserved and made accessible to scholars and visitors.

5. Contrast with Amaravati: While the *mahachaitya* at Amaravati was stripped of its sculptures and reduced to an insignificant mound, Sanchi survived largely intact. The patronage of the begums of Bhopal was a crucial factor in this outcome.

Conclusion:
The begums of Bhopal played a vital role in preserving the stupa at Sanchi through financial patronage, support for archaeological work, and advocacy for *in situ* preservation. Their contribution ensured that this magnificent monument of early Buddhist art and architecture survived for future generations.

(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?

Dhanavati dated her inscription by referring to the regnal year of the ruling king. She used the year 33 of the reign of Maharaja Huvishka, a Kushana ruler, as her dating reference. She further specified the time as 'the first month of the hot season on the eighth day,' giving a precise date within that year. This was a common method of dating inscriptions in ancient India – by the year of the reigning monarch's rule.

---

(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?

Dhanavati installed an image of the Bodhisatta likely for the following reasons:

1. **Religious merit (*punya*): Installing a sacred image was considered an act of great religious merit in Buddhist tradition. It would benefit not only the donor but also her relatives mentioned in the inscription.
2. Devotion:** As a *bhikkhuni* (Buddhist nun), Dhanavati was deeply devoted to the Buddhist faith. Installing a Bodhisatta image was an expression of her personal devotion.
3. Mahayana influence: The installation of a Bodhisatta image suggests that she may have been influenced by Mahayana Buddhist ideas, in which Bodhisattas were revered as compassionate beings who helped others attain salvation.
4. Commemoration: She may have installed the image to commemorate a special occasion or to honour her teachers and relatives.

---

(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?

Dhanavati mentioned the following relatives in her inscription:
1. Her aunt (mother's sister or father's sister): The bhikkhuni Buddhamita, described as 'the sister's daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita' – meaning Buddhamita was Dhanavati's aunt (specifically, Dhanavati was Buddhamita's sister's daughter, i.e., Buddhamita was her maternal aunt).
2. Her father and mother: The inscription states that the image was installed 'together with her father and mother,' indicating that her parents were also involved in or associated with the act of donation.

---

(d) What Buddhist text did she know?

Dhanavati knew the Tipitaka (also written as Tripitaka). The Tipitaka is the complete collection of Buddhist scriptures, consisting of three 'baskets' (*pitakas*):
1. Vinaya Pitaka – rules for monks and nuns
2. Sutta Pitaka – discourses of the Buddha
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka – philosophical and psychological analysis

The inscription specifically states that she 'knows the Tipitaka,' indicating that she was a learned and accomplished Buddhist nun.

---

(e) From whom did she learn this text?

Dhanavati learned the Tipitaka from the bhikkhu Bala, described in the inscription as 'the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka.' He was her teacher (*guru*). The inscription also mentions that her aunt, the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, also knew the Tipitaka, suggesting that Dhanavati came from a family with a strong tradition of Buddhist learning.

Introduction:
The Buddhist sangha was an organisation of monks (*bhikkhus*) and nuns (*bhikkhunis*) founded by the Buddha. It grew rapidly during the Buddha's lifetime and after his death, attracting followers from diverse social backgrounds.

Reasons why men joined the sangha:

1. Spiritual liberation: The sangha offered a structured path to attain *nibbana* – liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Men who were dissatisfied with worldly life sought this spiritual goal.

2. Dissatisfaction with existing religious practices: Many were disillusioned with the elaborate and expensive Brahmanical sacrificial rituals, which were dominated by priests and required wealth. The Buddha's teachings offered a simpler, more accessible path.

3. Intellectual appeal: The Buddha's emphasis on reason, debate, and individual understanding attracted intellectually curious men who wanted to explore philosophical questions.

4. Social equality: The sangha accepted men from all castes and social backgrounds. Once admitted, all were equal. This was particularly appealing to those from lower castes who faced discrimination in mainstream society.

5. Rapid social change: The period saw the rise of new cities, trade, and kingdoms, which disrupted traditional social structures. Many men found the sangha a stable and meaningful community in these uncertain times.

Reasons why women joined the sangha:

1. Escape from social oppression: Women in ancient Indian society had limited rights and were often subordinated to male authority. The sangha offered freedom from these restrictions.

2. Spiritual equality: Buddhism taught that women were equally capable of attaining liberation. Women could become *theris* – respected teachers who had attained enlightenment. This was a radical departure from mainstream society.

3. Escape from difficult personal circumstances: Some women may have joined the sangha to escape unhappy marriages, widowhood, or poverty.

4. Intellectual and spiritual engagement: The sangha provided women with an opportunity for learning, teaching, and spiritual practice that was otherwise denied to them.

5. Community and support: The sangha provided a supportive community of like-minded individuals, which was especially valuable for women who were isolated or marginalised.

Conclusion:
Both men and women joined the sangha for a combination of spiritual, social, and personal reasons. The sangha's emphasis on equality, reason, compassion, and individual effort made it an attractive alternative to the existing social and religious order.

Introduction:
The Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the most magnificent examples of early Buddhist art and architecture in India. Its gateways and railings are covered with intricate sculptures depicting a wide range of scenes – human figures, animals, plants, architectural settings, and narrative episodes. Understanding these sculptures requires more than visual observation; it requires a deep familiarity with Buddhist literature.

Buddhist Literature and the Interpretation of Sculpture:

1. Identification of Jataka stories:
Many of the sculptures at Sanchi depict scenes from the Jataka tales – stories about the previous lives of the Buddha. Without knowledge of these stories, it is impossible to correctly identify what is being depicted. For example, one sculpture at Sanchi has been identified by art historians as a scene from the *Vessantara Jataka* – the story of a generous prince who gave away everything and went to live in the forest with his family. At first sight, the sculpture appears to show a simple rural scene with thatched huts and trees. Only a scholar familiar with the Jataka literature can recognise the narrative.

2. Understanding the absence of the Buddha's image:
In the earliest Buddhist art, the Buddha was not depicted in human form. Instead, he was represented through symbols – a footprint, an empty throne, a wheel (*dhammachakra*), a parasol, or a Bodhi tree. Without knowledge of Buddhist literature and the tradition of aniconic representation, a viewer would not understand why the central figure is absent from scenes that clearly depict important events in the Buddha's life.

3. Identifying sacred sites and events:
Buddhist texts describe the four most sacred sites associated with the Buddha's life: Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon), and Kusinagara (death/nibbana). Sculptures at Sanchi depict events at these sites. Knowledge of the texts helps identify which event is being depicted.

4. Understanding the symbolism:
Many symbols used in Sanchi's sculpture – the lotus, the elephant, the serpent (*naga*), the tree – have specific meanings within Buddhist literature. The lotus symbolises purity and enlightenment; the Bodhi tree represents the site of the Buddha's enlightenment; the wheel represents the *dhamma*. Without textual knowledge, these symbols remain opaque.

5. The figure of Maya/Gajalakshmi:
One sculpture at Sanchi depicts a woman being bathed by elephants. Art historians have identified this as either Maya (the Buddha's mother) or Gajalakshmi (the goddess of prosperity). The ambiguity itself is significant – it suggests that Buddhist art drew on and interacted with popular traditions. Knowledge of both Buddhist texts and popular religious traditions is needed to understand this.

Limitations of Textual Knowledge:

However, textual knowledge alone is not sufficient. James Fergusson, one of the earliest modern art historians to study Sanchi, concluded that it was a centre of tree and serpent worship because he studied only the images without familiarity with Buddhist literature. This shows the danger of relying solely on visual evidence. Conversely, some motifs at Sanchi – such as the serpent on pillars – seem to derive from popular traditions that were not recorded in texts. Textual knowledge alone cannot explain these.

Furthermore, some sculptures remain ambiguous even to scholars well-versed in Buddhist literature. The large rock-cut panel at Mahabalipuram, for instance, has been interpreted both as the descent of the Ganga and as Arjuna's penance from the Mahabharata.

Conclusion:
Knowledge of Buddhist literature is indispensable for understanding the sculpture at Sanchi. It enables the identification of Jataka stories, the interpretation of symbols, the understanding of aniconic representation, and the recognition of sacred events and sites. However, textual knowledge must be combined with an understanding of popular traditions, artistic conventions, and the social context of the time. Neither texts nor images alone are sufficient – it is the combination of both that allows for a rich and nuanced interpretation of the sculpture at Sanchi.

Note: The actual figures (4.32 and 4.33) are not visible in the source text. The following is a model answer based on the general characteristics of Sanchi sculptures and the instruction to identify one rural and one urban scene.

Description of Fig. 4.32 (assumed to be the rural scene):

Architecture: The scene likely depicts simple thatched huts or wooden structures with curved roofs, typical of rural settlements. There are no elaborate multi-storeyed buildings or city walls.

Plants and Animals: The scene probably shows large trees – possibly mango, banyan, or Bodhi trees – which are common in rural settings. Animals such as deer, elephants, or cattle may be present, suggesting a forest or village environment.

Activities: The figures may be engaged in activities such as farming, gathering, or moving through a forest. The overall atmosphere is peaceful and pastoral.

Identification as Rural: The presence of simple thatched structures, large trees, forest animals, and the absence of city walls or elaborate architecture suggests that this is a rural scene.

---

Description of Fig. 4.33 (assumed to be the urban scene):

Architecture: The scene likely depicts multi-storeyed buildings, city walls, gateways, and elaborate architectural structures. Balconies, arched windows, and decorative elements may be visible, suggesting a prosperous urban setting.

Plants and Animals: Decorative plants and trees may be shown in a more formal, cultivated arrangement. Horses, elephants used in processions, or other animals associated with royal or urban life may be present.

Activities: The figures may be engaged in activities such as a royal procession, a market scene, or a public gathering. The presence of crowds, chariots, or soldiers would suggest an urban context.

Identification as Urban: The presence of elaborate multi-storeyed architecture, city walls, and activities associated with royal or commercial life suggests that this is an urban scene.

---

Conclusion:
The sculptures at Sanchi provide a vivid picture of life in ancient India, depicting both rural and urban settings with remarkable detail. By carefully observing the architecture, plants, animals, and human activities depicted, it is possible to distinguish between rural and urban scenes and gain insight into the social and economic life of the period.

Introduction:
The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism as major religious traditions in India (roughly from the first century CE onwards) was accompanied by significant developments in sculpture and architecture. These traditions gave rise to a rich artistic heritage that transformed the visual landscape of the subcontinent.

Development of Temple Architecture:

1. The early temple:
The earliest temples were simple structures – a small square room called the *garbhagriha* (womb chamber) with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image of the deity. This was a significant departure from the open-air sacrificial tradition of the Vedic period.

2. The shikhara:
Gradually, a tall tower known as the *shikhara* was built over the central shrine. The shikhara became the defining feature of the North Indian (Nagara) style of temple architecture. It symbolised the cosmic mountain – the abode of the gods.

3. Elaboration of temple complexes:
Over time, temples became far more elaborate. Assembly halls (*mandapas*), huge boundary walls, elaborate gateways (*gopurams* in South India), and arrangements for supplying water were added. The temple complex became a centre of religious, social, and economic life.

4. Rock-cut temples:
One unique feature of early temple architecture was the rock-cut cave temple. Huge rocks were hollowed out to create artificial caves that served as temples. This tradition was adopted by both Buddhist and Hindu traditions. Famous examples include the Kailasa temple at Ellora and the cave temples at Mahabalipuram.

Development of Sculpture:

1. Images of Vishnu and his avatars:
Vaishnavism developed the concept of the ten avatars (*dashavataras*) – forms that Vishnu assumed to save the world from evil. Each avatar was depicted in sculpture with specific attributes, symbols, and postures. For example:
- The Varaha (boar) avatar is depicted rescuing the earth goddess from the cosmic ocean.
- Vishnu reclining on the serpent Sheshnag (*Anantashayana*) is a popular sculptural theme, as seen at Deogarh.

2. Images of Shiva:
Shiva was primarily symbolised by the linga – an abstract representation of the deity. However, he was also depicted in human form with specific attributes such as the trident (*trishula*), the crescent moon in his hair, the river Ganga flowing from his matted locks, and the bull Nandi as his vehicle. The Nataraja form of Shiva – the cosmic dancer – became one of the most iconic images in Indian art.

3. Images of goddesses:
The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism was accompanied by the development of goddess worship. Durga, Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati were depicted in sculpture with specific attributes and iconographic conventions. The sculpture of Durga at Mahabalipuram (c. sixth century CE) is a magnificent example.

4. Iconographic conventions:
Sculptors developed elaborate conventions for depicting deities – including specific head-dresses, ornaments, *ayudhas* (weapons or auspicious objects held in the hands), postures (*mudras*), and the proportion of figures. These conventions were codified in texts known as *Shilpashastras*.

5. Narrative sculpture:
Temple walls were decorated with narrative sculptures depicting stories from the Puranas and epics. These served both a decorative and an educational function, making the stories accessible to ordinary worshippers who could not read.

Interaction with Popular Traditions:
The development of Vaishnavism and Shaivism involved the absorption of local deities and traditions. For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in the Mathura region whose worship gradually spread across the country. Recognising local deities as avatars of Vishnu was one way of creating a more unified religious tradition.

Conclusion:
The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism transformed Indian art and architecture. From simple shrines to elaborate temple complexes, from abstract symbols to richly detailed narrative sculptures, these traditions produced some of the most magnificent artistic achievements in Indian history. The sculptures and temples of this period continue to be studied and admired for their artistic sophistication and religious significance.

Introduction:
The stupa is one of the most distinctive and important monuments of Buddhist art and architecture. Stupas are mounds that contain relics of the Buddha or other sacred objects, and they became the focal point of Buddhist worship and pilgrimage. Understanding why and how stupas were built requires examining both the religious significance of these monuments and the practical processes of their construction.

Why were stupas built?

1. To enshrine the relics of the Buddha:
The primary reason for building stupas was to house the bodily remains (*relics*) of the Buddha or objects used by him. According to the *Mahaparinibbana Sutta*, when the Buddha was dying, his disciple Ananda asked what should be done with his remains. The Buddha replied that a *thupa* (stupa) should be erected at crossroads, and that those who offered garlands, perfume, or salutations there would gain merit and joy. This text provided the religious justification for building stupas.

2. As emblems of the Buddha and Buddhism:
Since stupas contained sacred relics, the entire mound came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and the Buddhist faith. Worshipping at a stupa was equivalent to paying homage to the Buddha himself.

3. To mark sacred sites:
Stupas were also built at places associated with important events in the Buddha's life – his birth at Lumbini, his enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, his first sermon at Sarnath, and his death at Kusinagara. Asoka is said to have erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark his visit.

4. The role of Asoka:
According to the *Ashokavadana*, the Mauryan emperor Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha's relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE, a number of stupas – including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath – had been built.

How were stupas built?

1. Structure of the stupa:
The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth (*anda*). Over time, it evolved into a more complex structure:
- Anda: The semi-circular mound, the core of the stupa.
- Harmika: A balcony-like structure above the anda, representing the abode of the gods.
- Yashti: A mast rising from the harmika.
- Chhatri: An umbrella surmounting the yashti, symbolising royalty and honour.
- **Railing (*vedika*): A stone railing surrounding the mound, separating the sacred space from the secular world. It resembled a bamboo or wooden fence.
- Gateways (*toranas*): Richly carved gateways installed at the four cardinal points. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked clockwise around the mound, imitating the sun's course through the sky.

2. Sources of funding:
Stupas were built through donations from a wide range of individuals and groups:
- Kings and rulers: The Satavahana kings made donations for the construction of stupas.
- Guilds: The guild of ivory workers financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi.
- Individual donors: Hundreds of inscriptions record donations by ordinary men and women, who mentioned their names, places of origin, occupations, and the names of their relatives.
- Monks and nuns:** *Bhikkhus* and *bhikkhunis* also contributed to the construction of stupas.

3. Decoration:
The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings and the richly carved gateways. Later, the mounds of stupas came to be elaborately carved with niches and sculptures, as at Amaravati. The sculptures depicted scenes from the Jataka tales, events from the Buddha's life, and symbols associated with Buddhism.

4. Evolution of the stupa:
Over time, the stupa became more elaborate. At sites like Amaravati and Shahji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar, the mound was covered with intricate carvings and sculptures. The tradition of building stupas spread beyond India to Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia, where it evolved into different architectural forms such as the pagoda.

Conclusion:
Stupas were built to enshrine the sacred relics of the Buddha, to mark important sites associated with his life, and to serve as focal points for Buddhist worship and pilgrimage. They were funded by a broad cross-section of society – kings, guilds, merchants, monks, nuns, and ordinary men and women – reflecting the wide appeal of Buddhism. The stupa evolved from a simple earthen mound into an elaborate architectural complex, and its influence spread across Asia, making it one of the most enduring symbols of Buddhist civilisation.

Note: This is a map-based activity. The following is a written description of the areas to which Buddhism spread and the routes taken, which should be used to complete the map work.

Areas to which Buddhism spread:

1. Central Asia:
- Afghanistan, parts of modern Pakistan (ancient Gandhara), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and the Silk Road regions.
- Buddhism spread here through land routes, carried by merchants and missionaries.

2. East Asia:
- China: Buddhism entered China via the Silk Road (land route) around the first century CE.
- Korea: Buddhism spread from China to Korea around the fourth century CE.
- Japan: Buddhism spread from Korea to Japan around the sixth century CE.

3. South-East Asia:
- Sri Lanka: Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka by sea route, traditionally through the mission of Mahinda (son of Asoka) in the third century BCE.
- Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam: Buddhism spread through sea routes from India and Sri Lanka.
- Indonesia: Buddhism spread by sea route; the great Buddhist monument of Borobudur in Java dates to the eighth-ninth century CE.

Land Routes:
- From the Gangetic plain → Northwest India (Taxila, Gandhara) → Afghanistan → Central Asia (Bactria, Sogdia) → China (via the Silk Road through the Tarim Basin) → Korea → Japan.

Sea Routes:
- From ports on the east coast of India (such as Tamralipti in Bengal and ports in Andhra Pradesh) → Sri Lanka → Myanmar → Thailand → Cambodia → Indonesia.
- From ports on the west coast of India → Sri Lanka.

Instructions for Map Work:
1. On an outline world map, shade or mark the following regions: India, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan), China, Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia.
2. Draw a dotted line along the Silk Road from Northwest India through Central Asia to China, and then to Korea and Japan (land route).
3. Draw a dotted line along the sea route from the east coast of India to Sri Lanka, and then along the coast of Southeast Asia to Indonesia (sea route).
4. Label the key sites: Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Sanchi, Taxila, Gandhara, Dunhuang (China).

Note: This is a project-based activity that requires students to conduct their own research and observation in their local community. The following is a model framework and sample answer that students can adapt based on their own experience.

Introduction:
India is a land of diverse religious traditions. The traditions discussed in this chapter – Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, and Shaivism – continue to be practised in many parts of the country today, though they have evolved significantly over the centuries.

Religious Tradition in the Neighbourhood (Sample: Hinduism/Vaishnavism):

Religious Texts:
The primary texts used in Vaishnava worship today include the Bhagavad Gita, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Ramayana. These texts are preserved in printed form (books), digital form (websites, apps), and are transmitted through oral recitation, public readings (*kathas*), and formal religious education. Unlike the ancient period when texts were preserved in manuscripts in temple libraries, today they are widely available in print and digital formats.

Use of Images:
Images (*murtis*) of deities such as Vishnu, Krishna, Rama, and Lakshmi are central to Vaishnava worship today. These images are installed in temples and home shrines and are worshipped daily with offerings of flowers, food, incense, and lamps. Compared to the early sculptures described in this chapter – such as the Varaha avatar at Aihole or the reclining Vishnu at Deogarh – modern images are often made of metal (brass, silver, gold) or marble, and are dressed in elaborate clothing and jewellery. The iconographic conventions (specific attributes, postures, symbols) remain largely similar to those established in the early medieval period.

Buildings for Religious Activities:
Modern Hindu temples range from simple neighbourhood shrines to elaborate complexes with multiple shrines, assembly halls, and facilities for pilgrims. Compared to the early temples described in this chapter – which were simple structures with a *garbhagriha* and a *shikhara* – modern temples are far more elaborate. However, the basic structure remains similar: a central shrine housing the main deity, a *shikhara* above it, and a *mandapa* (assembly hall) for worshippers. The tradition of decorating temple walls with sculpture also continues.

Comparison with Early Stupas and Temples:
- Early stupas were mounds containing relics, surrounded by railings and gateways. Modern Buddhist temples (viharas) are very different in form, though they still contain images of the Buddha.
- Early Hindu temples were simple structures with a *garbhagriha* and *shikhara*. Modern temples are far more elaborate but retain the same basic elements.
- The use of images in worship, the practice of circumambulation (walking around the shrine), and the offering of flowers and incense are practices that have continued from ancient times to the present.

Conclusion:
The religious traditions described in this chapter continue to be vibrant and living traditions in India today. While the forms of worship, the preservation of texts, and the architecture of religious buildings have evolved significantly, there are also remarkable continuities with the ancient past.

Note: This is a project-based activity that requires students to collect images and conduct interviews. The following is a model framework for the report.

Introduction:
This project aims to explore how people with different levels of familiarity with art history and religious traditions interpret religious sculptures and paintings. By removing captions and asking people to describe what they see, we can understand the role of prior knowledge in the interpretation of art.

Methodology:
1. Collect five images of religious sculpture or painting from different periods and regions. For example:
- A Jaina tirthankara from Mathura (c. third century CE)
- A sculpture of the Buddha from Amaravati (c. second century CE)
- The Varaha avatar of Vishnu from Aihole (c. sixth century CE)
- A sculpture of Durga from Mahabalipuram (c. sixth century CE)
- A scene from the Sanchi gateways depicting a Jataka story
2. Remove all captions and labels from the images.
3. Show each image to two people – ideally one person with some knowledge of art history or religion, and one person without such knowledge.
4. Ask each person to describe what they see: What figures are depicted? What are they doing? What is the setting? What do you think this image represents?
5. Record their responses carefully.

Sample Findings:

Image 1: Jaina Tirthankara
- Person A (with knowledge): Identified the figure as a Jaina tirthankara based on the meditative posture, the absence of clothing, and the serene expression.
- Person B (without knowledge): Described it as 'a seated figure in meditation, possibly a holy man or a god.'

Image 2: Scene from Sanchi (Jataka story)
- Person A: Identified it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka based on the forest setting and the figures of a prince, his wife, and children.
- Person B: Described it as 'a rural scene with huts, trees, and people – possibly a village scene.'

Analysis:
The responses reveal that prior knowledge of Buddhist literature, Jaina philosophy, and Hindu iconography significantly affects the interpretation of religious art. Without such knowledge, viewers tend to describe what they see literally (figures, settings, activities) without being able to identify the specific religious narrative or significance. This confirms the point made in the chapter that knowledge of Buddhist literature is essential for understanding the sculpture at Sanchi.

Conclusion:
Religious art is not self-explanatory. Its meaning is embedded in a specific cultural, religious, and historical context. Without familiarity with the texts, traditions, and iconographic conventions of the relevant religious tradition, even a careful observer may miss the deeper significance of what they are seeing. This project demonstrates the importance of combining visual analysis with textual and contextual knowledge in the study of art history.