Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings (Cultural Developments) (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)

Yes, the Upanishadic thinkers were different from the fatalists and materialists.

The Upanishadic thinkers were curious about life, death, rebirth, and the nature of the ultimate reality. They asked whether rebirth depended on past actions and reflected on the nature of the self. In the verses from the *Chhandogya Upanishad*, the self is described as both very small and very great, showing a deep philosophical search for truth.

By contrast, the fatalists such as Makkhali Gosala believed that everything was predetermined and that human effort could not change the course of *samsara*. The materialists such as Ajita Kesakambalin denied the existence of alms, sacrifice, this world or the next, and said that a human being is only made of the four elements and does not survive after death.

So, the Upanishadic thinkers believed in philosophical inquiry and the possibility of understanding reality, whereas the fatalists denied freedom of action and the materialists denied afterlife and spiritual reality.

The central teachings of Jainism were:

- The entire world is animated; even stones, rocks and water have life.
- The most important principle is ahimsa or non-injury to living beings.
- The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped by karma.
- To free oneself from karma, one must practise asceticism and penance.
- Salvation is possible only by renouncing the world; therefore monastic life is necessary.
- Jain monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing and lying, to observe celibacy, and to abstain from possessing property.

These ideas made Jainism a religion of strict discipline, self-control and compassion for all living beings.

The begums of Bhopal played a very important role in preserving Sanchi.

- Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum provided money for the preservation of the ancient site.
- Sultan Jehan Begum funded the museum built at Sanchi.
- She also funded the guesthouse where John Marshall lived and wrote his volumes on Sanchi.
- She even supported the publication of those volumes.

Because of their wise decisions and financial support, the stupa complex survived and was later restored and preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India. The chapter says that the survival of Sanchi was due in no small measure to the begums’ support.

(a) She dated her inscription by the regnal year of Huvishka and by the season and day.

(b) She likely installed the Bodhisatta image to express devotion and gain religious merit, a common reason for Buddhist donations.

(c) The inscription mentions her father and mother, and also refers to her aunt Buddhamita.

(d) She knew the Tipitaka.

(e) She learned it from bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who in turn was the female pupil of bhikkhu Bala.

Women and men joined the sangha for several reasons.

- The Buddha’s teachings attracted people who were dissatisfied with existing religious practices.
- The emphasis on conduct and values, rather than birth, appealed to many.
- The ideas of metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) drew people to Buddhism.
- People from many social groups joined, including kings, wealthy men, gahapatis, workers, slaves and craftspeople.
- For women, the sangha offered a life beyond domestic restrictions and a chance to become bhikkhunīs and even theris.
- For both men and women, the sangha promised a path to liberation, equality within the order, and a community based on discipline and shared spiritual goals.

So, the sangha appealed both as a religious path and as a social alternative to the existing order.

Knowledge of Buddhist literature helps a great deal in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi.

- Many sculptures at Sanchi illustrate stories from the Jatakas; without the texts, these scenes may look like ordinary rural or decorative images.
- Buddhist texts and hagiographies explain important symbols: the empty seat stands for the Buddha’s meditation, the stupa for his *mahaparinibbana*, and the wheel for the first sermon at Sarnath.
- The *Mahaparinibbana Sutta* explains why stupas were worshipped and why relics were enshrined.
- Texts help historians identify the meanings of motifs such as the Bodhi tree, worshippers, and symbolic representations of the Buddha.
- They also help interpret whether a scene is Buddhist, or whether it includes popular traditions such as the *shalabhanjika* motif or symbols of fertility and auspiciousness.

However, textual knowledge is not enough by itself. Some images are not described exactly in texts, and art historians must also study the sculpture itself, inscriptions, and local traditions. So Buddhist literature is essential, but it must be combined with other evidence.