Bricks, Beads and Bones (The Harappan Civilization)

The people of Harappan cities ate a wide range of plant and animal products. The plant foods mentioned in the chapter are wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, and in Gujarat millets; rice was rare. They also ate fish. Among animal foods, the chapter mentions cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig; bones of wild boar, deer and gharial are also found, as well as fish and fowl.

These foods would have been provided by farmers growing crops, herders/pastoralists raising animals, and fisherfolk supplying fish. Wild animals may have been obtained by hunters or through exchange with other communities.

Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences mainly by studying burials and artefacts. In burials, they look for differences in the shape of the burial pit, whether it was lined with bricks, and whether pottery, ornaments or mirrors were placed with the dead. They also study objects found in settlements and classify them as utilitarian or luxuries. Rare objects made of costly, non-local materials or difficult technologies are taken as indicators of higher status.

The differences they notice are limited, however. Some graves contain pottery, ornaments, copper mirrors and even jewellery, but on the whole Harappans do not seem to have buried precious things lavishly with the dead. Luxury items such as faience miniature pots and gold jewellery are concentrated in large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, while smaller settlements have fewer such objects.

Yes, the drainage system clearly indicates town planning. The chapter says that Harappan cities had streets laid out in an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. Streets with drains were laid out first and then houses were built along them. Every house was connected to the street drains, and the drains were made with care, using bricks set in mortar, removable covers for cleaning, and even sumps/cesspits for settling solid waste.

This shows that the city was not built haphazardly. The layout of streets, houses, and drains was planned in advance so that waste water could flow out properly. So the drainage system is strong evidence of careful urban planning.

The materials used for Harappan beads included carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience and terracotta (burnt clay). Some beads were also made of two or more stones, or stone with gold caps.

For example, carnelian beads were made in this way: the raw yellowish material was first fired to get the red colour. Then nodules were chipped into rough shapes, finely flaked into the final form, and finished by grinding, polishing and drilling. Archaeologists have found specialized drills at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.

The burial shown in Fig. 1.30 is a Harappan burial. The body is placed in a pit, laid out in a careful manner, usually stretched out on the back. Near the body there are pots/ pottery vessels, suggesting offerings or goods placed with the dead. In some Harappan graves, ornaments are also found, and the chapter mentions that jewellery and even copper mirrors can occur in burials.

However, artefacts on the body do not definitely indicate the sex of the skeleton. The chapter specifically notes that jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women. So ornaments cannot be used as certain proof of whether the skeleton was male or female.

Mohenjodaro was a planned urban centre and had several distinctive features. It was divided into two parts: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel was higher because buildings stood on mud-brick platforms and it was walled off from the Lower Town. The Lower Town also had walls, and the streets were laid out in a grid pattern with carefully planned drainage.

Domestic houses often had a courtyard with rooms around it, no windows at ground level, and a main entrance that did not directly open onto the interior. Each house had a bathroom connected to street drains, and many houses had wells. The Citadel also contained special structures such as the Great Bath and a warehouse.