Reproductive Health — NCERT Solutions

Given: Gonads include the testes (in males) and ovaries (in females).

Reason:

Removal of gonads (gonadectomy) cannot be considered a contraceptive option because:

1. Hormonal imbalance: Gonads are endocrine glands that secrete sex hormones — testosterone (testes) and oestrogen/progesterone (ovaries). Their removal causes severe hormonal imbalance leading to serious health consequences.

2. Loss of secondary sexual characters: Without gonadal hormones, secondary sexual characters (beard, breast development, voice changes, etc.) regress or fail to develop.

3. Irreversible procedure: Removal of gonads is a permanent, irreversible surgical procedure, not a reversible contraceptive method.

4. Serious side effects: It leads to conditions like osteoporosis, cardiovascular problems, psychological disturbances and loss of libido.

5. Not the purpose of contraception: Contraceptive methods are meant to prevent fertilisation or implantation temporarily, without causing harm to the individual's overall health. Gonadectomy causes permanent sterility along with severe physiological damage.

Conclusion: A contraceptive method should be safe, effective, reversible and without major side effects. Removal of gonads fulfils none of these criteria and is therefore not a contraceptive option.

Yes, the ban on amniocentesis for sex determination is absolutely necessary.

What is Amniocentesis?
Amniocentesis is a prenatal diagnostic technique in which a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn from the amniotic sac surrounding the foetus. The foetal cells in this fluid are analysed to detect chromosomal abnormalities, genetic disorders and the sex of the foetus.

Why the Ban is Necessary:

1. Prevention of Female Foeticide: In India, due to deep-rooted patriarchal attitudes and son preference, knowledge of female sex of the foetus often leads to selective abortion (female foeticide), which is morally and ethically wrong.

2. Declining Sex Ratio: Widespread misuse of amniocentesis for sex determination has led to a severely skewed sex ratio in many states (e.g., Haryana, Punjab), with far fewer females than males.

3. Social Imbalance: A declining female population leads to serious social problems like trafficking, polyandry and violence against women.

4. Violation of Rights: Every foetus, irrespective of sex, has the right to life. Sex-selective abortion violates this fundamental right.

5. Legal Framework: The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act, 1994 (amended 2003) bans the use of amniocentesis and other techniques for sex determination.

Legitimate Uses of Amniocentesis:
Amniocentesis is a valuable medical tool for detecting chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., Down's syndrome), metabolic disorders and other genetic diseases. It should be used only for these medical purposes.

Conclusion: The ban on amniocentesis for sex determination is not only necessary but also a moral and social imperative to protect the girl child and maintain a balanced sex ratio in society.

Given: Infertility is defined as the inability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of unprotected sexual cohabitation.

Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) to Help Infertile Couples:

1. In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) — 'Test Tube Baby' Programme:

• Ova from the wife/donor and sperm from the husband/donor are collected and fertilised outside the body in a laboratory.
• The resulting embryo is transferred into the uterus (Embryo Transfer — ET).

2. Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT):

• The zygote or early embryo (up to 8 blastomeres) formed by IVF is transferred into the fallopian tube instead of the uterus.

3. Intra-Uterine Transfer (IUT):

• Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres are transferred into the uterus.

4. Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer (GIFT):

• Ovum collected from a donor is transferred into the fallopian tube of a woman who cannot produce ova but can provide a suitable environment for fertilisation.

5. Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI):

• A single sperm is directly injected into the ovum in the laboratory to form an embryo, useful in cases of very low sperm count.

6. Intra-Uterine Insemination (IUI) / Artificial Insemination (AI):

• Semen collected from the husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced into the vagina or uterus of the female.
• Used when the male partner has very low sperm count or poor sperm motility.

7. Surrogacy:

• When a woman cannot carry a pregnancy, a surrogate mother carries the embryo (formed from the couple's gametes) to term.

Conclusion: These techniques have given hope to millions of infertile couples worldwide and represent a major advancement in reproductive medicine.

Given: STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) or STIs (Sexually Transmitted Infections) are infections/diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse.

Preventive Measures:

1. Avoid sexual contact with unknown/multiple partners: Having sexual relations with multiple or unknown partners greatly increases the risk of contracting STIs.

2. Use of condoms: Always use condoms (male or female) during sexual intercourse. Condoms act as a barrier and prevent the transmission of pathogens.

3. Avoid sharing needles/syringes: HIV and Hepatitis B can be transmitted through contaminated needles. Always use sterile, disposable needles.

4. Screening of blood: Ensure that blood received during transfusion is screened for STIs like HIV and Hepatitis B.

5. Avoid sharing personal items: Do not share razors, toothbrushes or other personal items that may carry blood or body fluids.

6. Early diagnosis and treatment: Get regular medical check-ups and seek early treatment if symptoms of STIs appear. Early detection facilitates better cure.

7. Vaccination: Vaccines are available for some STIs like Hepatitis B and HPV (Human Papillomavirus). Getting vaccinated provides protection.

8. Sex education and awareness: Proper education about STIs, their transmission and prevention is essential, especially for adolescents.

9. Abstinence or mutual monogamy: Abstaining from sexual activity or maintaining a mutually faithful monogamous relationship significantly reduces the risk.

10. Avoid self-medication: Do not self-medicate for STIs; consult a doctor for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Conclusion: A combination of responsible sexual behaviour, use of barrier contraceptives and regular medical check-ups is the most effective way to prevent STIs.

(a) Abortions could happen spontaneously too.

True.

Explanation: Abortions can occur spontaneously (without any medical intervention) and are called spontaneous abortions or miscarriages. These occur due to chromosomal abnormalities in the foetus, hormonal imbalances, uterine abnormalities, infections or other medical conditions. They are different from induced (medical) abortions (MTP).

(b) Infertility is defined as the inability to produce a viable offspring and is always due to abnormalities/defects in the female partner.

False.

Explanation: The first part of the statement is partially correct — infertility is the inability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of unprotected sexual cohabitation. However, the second part is false. Infertility is not always due to defects in the female partner. It can be due to:

• Male factors: Low sperm count, poor sperm motility, abnormal sperm morphology, blockage of vas deferens, etc.
• Female factors: Blocked fallopian tubes, hormonal imbalances, uterine abnormalities, etc.
• Combined factors: Problems in both partners.
• Unexplained infertility: No identifiable cause in either partner.

Thus, infertility can be due to abnormalities in either or both partners.

(c) Complete lactation could help as a natural method of contraception.

True.

Explanation: This is known as the Lactational Amenorrhoea Method (LAM). During complete (full) breastfeeding (lactation), the high levels of prolactin hormone suppress the release of GnRH, which in turn inhibits ovulation and menstruation (amenorrhoea). Since ovulation does not occur, the chances of conception are minimal. However, this method is effective only:

• During complete lactation (no supplementary feeding)
• Up to a maximum of 6 months after delivery
• As long as menstruation has not resumed

Beyond these conditions, its effectiveness decreases significantly.

(d) Creating awareness about sex related aspects is an effective method to improve reproductive health of the people.

True.

Explanation: Creating awareness about sex-related aspects — including reproductive organs, puberty, safe sexual practices, contraception, STIs, family planning and MTP — is the primary and most effective step towards improving reproductive health. Awareness:

• Helps people make informed decisions
• Reduces the spread of STIs
• Promotes responsible sexual behaviour
• Reduces unwanted pregnancies and unsafe abortions
• Empowers women and adolescents

This is why sex education and awareness campaigns form the cornerstone of all national reproductive health programmes.

(a) Incorrect Statement: Surgical methods of contraception prevent gamete formation.

Corrected Statement: Surgical methods of contraception prevent the transport of gametes (not their formation).

Explanation: Surgical methods include:

• Vasectomy (in males): A small portion of the vas deferens is cut and tied, preventing the transport of sperms from the testes to the urethra. Sperm formation (spermatogenesis) continues normally in the testes.
• Tubectomy (in females): A small portion of the fallopian tube is cut and tied, preventing the transport of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. Ovum formation (oogenesis) continues normally in the ovaries.

Thus, surgical methods prevent the transport of gametes, not their formation.

(b) Incorrect Statement: All sexually transmitted diseases are completely curable.

Corrected Statement: Some sexually transmitted diseases are completely curable, but others, like HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis B, are not completely curable (they can only be managed).

Explanation:

• STIs caused by bacteria (e.g., gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia) are completely curable with antibiotics if detected early.
• STIs caused by viruses (e.g., HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B, genital herpes, genital warts caused by HPV) are not completely curable. They can only be managed with antiviral drugs to control symptoms and slow progression.

(c) Incorrect Statement: Oral pills are very popular contraceptives among the rural women.

Corrected Statement: Oral pills are very popular contraceptives among urban women. Barrier methods (condoms) and IUDs (Intra-Uterine Devices) are more commonly used in rural areas, or alternatively, tubectomy is popular among rural women.

Explanation: Oral contraceptive pills require regular, disciplined daily intake and medical supervision. In rural areas, due to lack of awareness, literacy, access to healthcare and regular medical follow-up, oral pills are less popular. IUDs and sterilisation methods are more commonly adopted in rural settings.

(d) Incorrect Statement: In E.T. techniques, embryos are always transferred into the uterus.

Corrected Statement: In E.T. (Embryo Transfer) techniques, embryos are not always transferred into the uterus. Embryos with up to 8 blastomeres are transferred into the fallopian tube (ZIFT — Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer), while embryos with more than 8 blastomeres are transferred into the uterus (IUT — Intra-Uterine Transfer).

Explanation:

• ZIFT (Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer): The zygote or early embryo (up to 8 blastomeres) is transferred into the fallopian tube.
• IUT (Intra-Uterine Transfer): Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres are transferred into the uterus.

Thus, the site of embryo transfer depends on the stage of embryonic development.