Contemporary South Asia — NCERT Solutions

Given: India and Pakistan have a complex relationship marked by both conflict and attempts at normalisation.

Recent Agreements and Confidence-Building Measures between India and Pakistan:

1. Composite Dialogue Process: India and Pakistan agreed to a composite dialogue to discuss all outstanding issues including Kashmir, terrorism, trade, and cultural exchanges.

2. Bus Services: A number of bus routes were opened between the two countries, including the historic Delhi–Lahore bus service (Sada-e-Sarhad) and the Srinagar–Muzaffarabad bus service.

3. Trade Agreements: Trade between India and Pakistan increased significantly. Pakistan was granted Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status by India (though Pakistan did not reciprocate for a long time).

4. Visa Liberalisation: Visas were made more easily available, especially for senior citizens, religious pilgrims, and businesspeople.

5. Samjhauta Express: The train service between Attari (India) and Lahore (Pakistan) was resumed as a people-to-people contact measure.

6. Lahore Declaration (1999): Both countries agreed to resolve disputes peacefully and reduce the risk of nuclear conflict.

7. Cricket Diplomacy: Exchange of cricket tours and cultural exchanges have been used as tools of soft diplomacy.

Can we be sure of a friendly relationship?

No, we cannot be fully certain, for the following reasons:

1. Terrorism: India accuses Pakistan of supporting cross-border terrorism. Major incidents like the 2001 Parliament attack, the 2008 Mumbai attacks (26/11), and the 2016 Uri attack have repeatedly derailed the peace process.

2. Kashmir Dispute: The unresolved issue of Kashmir remains the core dispute. Both countries claim the entire region.

3. Military Tensions: Both countries are nuclear-armed, and military stand-offs (e.g., the 2001–02 military stand-off after the Parliament attack) have brought them close to conflict.

4. Domestic Politics: In both countries, hardline nationalist groups oppose normalisation, making it politically difficult for governments to make concessions.

5. Lack of Trust: Despite agreements, the lack of mutual trust means that any single incident can derail years of diplomatic progress.

Conclusion: While there have been positive steps towards normalisation, the relationship remains fragile. A truly friendly relationship requires sustained political will, resolution of the Kashmir issue, and an end to cross-border terrorism.

Given: India and Bangladesh share a long border and have a complex bilateral relationship.

Two Areas of Cooperation between India and Bangladesh:

1. Ganga Waters Treaty (1996): India and Bangladesh signed a landmark agreement on the sharing of Ganga river waters at Farakka. This treaty resolved a long-standing dispute over water sharing and is an example of successful bilateral cooperation.

2. Liberation War (1971): India played a crucial role in supporting Bangladesh's liberation from Pakistan in 1971. India provided military support, shelter to millions of refugees, and diplomatic backing, which helped Bangladesh gain independence. This historical bond forms the foundation of cooperation.

3. (Additional example) Trade and Economic Cooperation: India is one of Bangladesh's largest trading partners. Both countries have cooperated on transit facilities, and India has provided Bangladesh access to its ports for trade with Nepal and Bhutan.

Two Areas of Disagreement between India and Bangladesh:

1. Illegal Immigration: India has long complained about the large-scale illegal migration of Bangladeshi nationals into Indian states, particularly West Bengal, Assam, and other northeastern states. This has caused demographic, economic, and security concerns in India. Bangladesh denies that large-scale illegal migration takes place.

2. River Water Sharing (Teesta and other rivers): While the Ganga treaty was signed, disputes remain over the sharing of waters of the Teesta river and several other common rivers. A Teesta water-sharing agreement has been pending for years due to objections from the Indian state of West Bengal.

3. (Additional example) Trade Imbalance: Bangladesh has complained about the large trade deficit with India and non-tariff barriers that restrict Bangladeshi exports to India.

Conclusion: Despite areas of disagreement, India and Bangladesh share strong historical, cultural, and economic ties that provide a solid basis for resolving disputes through dialogue.

Given: South Asia does not exist in isolation; external powers play a significant role in shaping regional politics.

How External Powers Influence Bilateral Relations in South Asia:

No region exists in a vacuum. External powers — particularly the United States and China — have significant strategic, economic, and political interests in South Asia and actively influence bilateral relations between South Asian countries.

External powers influence the region through:

• Military and economic aid to individual countries.
• Strategic partnerships that alter the regional balance of power.
• Mediation in bilateral disputes.
• Trade and investment that create economic dependencies.

Example: China's Influence on India-Pakistan Relations

China's strategic partnership with Pakistan is a major example of how an external power influences bilateral relations in South Asia.

• China has provided Pakistan with significant military assistance, including help in developing its nuclear programme and supplying advanced weapons systems (e.g., fighter jets, submarines, missiles).
• China and Pakistan jointly developed the JF-17 Thunder fighter aircraft.
• The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, involves Chinese investment of over $60 billion in Pakistan's infrastructure, passing through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) — which India strongly objects to as a violation of its sovereignty.
• China has consistently blocked India's attempts at the UN Security Council to designate Pakistani-based terrorists (like Masood Azhar) as global terrorists.
• This Chinese support emboldens Pakistan in its confrontational posture towards India and complicates India-Pakistan relations.

Conclusion: China's strategic partnership with Pakistan acts as a major irritant in India-Pakistan relations and demonstrates how external powers can significantly influence bilateral relations within South Asia.

Given: SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is the primary regional organisation of South Asia.

SAARC — Role and Limitations

Background:
SAARC was established in 1985 with seven founding members: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Maldives. Afghanistan joined in 2007. Its headquarters is in Kathmandu, Nepal. The primary objective of SAARC is to promote economic cooperation, social development, and cultural exchange among South Asian nations.

Role of SAARC:

1. Platform for Dialogue: SAARC provides a regular forum for heads of state and government of South Asian countries to meet, discuss common issues, and build mutual understanding.

2. SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area): SAFTA was signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad (2004) and came into force in 2006. It aims to reduce tariffs and promote intra-regional trade among member countries.

3. Social and Cultural Cooperation: SAARC has promoted cooperation in areas such as education, health, poverty alleviation, and disaster management through various agreements and programmes.

4. SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA): Signed in 1993, it was the precursor to SAFTA and aimed at reducing trade barriers.

5. People-to-People Contact: SAARC has facilitated cultural exchanges, academic cooperation, and tourism promotion in the region.

Limitations of SAARC:

1. India-Pakistan Rivalry: The most significant limitation is the deep-rooted political conflict between India and Pakistan. Since SAARC requires consensus for decisions, the India-Pakistan rivalry has repeatedly paralysed the organisation. The 19th SAARC Summit (scheduled for 2016 in Islamabad) was cancelled after India and other countries boycotted it following the Uri terror attack.

2. Bilateral Issues Excluded: SAARC's charter prohibits discussion of bilateral and contentious issues, which means the most important disputes (like Kashmir) cannot be addressed within the SAARC framework.

3. Low Intra-Regional Trade: Despite SAFTA, intra-regional trade in South Asia remains among the lowest in the world (less than 5% of total trade of member countries), compared to ASEAN (25%) or the EU (60%).

4. Dominance of India: Smaller member states are often suspicious of India's dominant size and influence, which creates trust deficits and reluctance to deepen integration.

5. Lack of Implementation: Many SAARC agreements and decisions remain on paper and are not effectively implemented due to lack of political will.

Conclusion: SAARC has the potential to transform South Asia into a prosperous and peaceful region, but its effectiveness is severely constrained by political rivalries — especially between India and Pakistan. For SAARC to fulfil its promise, member states must separate economic cooperation from political disputes.

Given: This is an analytical question about India's role in South Asia and the perception of its neighbours.

Introduction:
India is by far the largest country in South Asia in terms of territory, population, economic size, and military power. This asymmetry naturally creates concerns among smaller neighbours about Indian dominance. The question is whether these concerns are justified or whether they are based on misperceptions.

Arguments supporting the impression (that India does interfere):

1. India's Intervention in 1971: India's military intervention in the Bangladesh Liberation War (1971), while welcomed by Bangladeshis, demonstrated India's willingness and capability to intervene militarily in the region.

2. India's Role in Sri Lanka: India's involvement in the Sri Lankan ethnic conflict — initially supporting Tamil groups and later sending the IPKF (Indian Peace Keeping Force) in 1987 — was seen by many Sri Lankans as interference in their internal affairs. The IPKF's presence became controversial and it was eventually asked to leave.

3. India-Nepal Relations: Nepal has often complained that India uses its economic leverage (Nepal is landlocked and dependent on India for trade and transit) to influence Nepalese politics. The 2015 economic blockade (which India denied imposing) caused great resentment in Nepal.

4. India-Bhutan Relations: India has a special treaty relationship with Bhutan that gives India significant influence over Bhutan's foreign policy.

5. India-Maldives: India has intervened militarily in Maldives (Operation Cactus, 1988) to restore the elected government, which, while welcomed at the time, shows India's capacity for intervention.

Arguments against the impression (that India does not unduly dominate):

1. Legitimate Security Concerns: India's interventions have often been in response to genuine security threats — such as the presence of Pakistani-backed militants or requests from legitimate governments (as in Maldives in 1988).

2. Economic Assistance: India provides significant economic aid, trade preferences, and development assistance to its neighbours. India has given Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka preferential trade access.

3. Respect for Sovereignty: India has generally respected the sovereignty of its neighbours and has not sought to annex territory or permanently station troops in neighbouring countries.

4. Smaller Countries Also Have Agency: Smaller countries like Nepal and Sri Lanka have successfully pursued independent foreign policies, including building ties with China, which shows they are not simply dominated by India.

5. India's Neighbourhood First Policy: India's stated foreign policy prioritises good relations with neighbours and development cooperation.

Balanced Conclusion:

The impression that India dominates and interferes is partly correct and partly a misperception. Given India's overwhelming size and power relative to its neighbours, any action by India — even well-intentioned — can appear as interference. India needs to be more sensitive to the concerns of smaller neighbours and engage with them as equals. At the same time, smaller countries must recognise that India has legitimate security interests in the region. A relationship of mutual respect, non-interference, and economic cooperation — rather than suspicion — is the key to a stable and prosperous South Asia. As the largest country, India bears a special responsibility to build trust with its neighbours.