Circulation of Body Fluids

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The main function of the circulatory system is to transport essential substances like oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products to and from cells. It also helps in maintaining body temperature, …

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Blood is a specialized connective tissue composed of a fluid matrix called plasma and formed elements (blood cells). The components are: (1) Plasma – the liquid part containing water, proteins, salts,…

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Lymph is a colorless fluid derived from interstitial fluid that leaks out of blood capillaries into tissue spaces. It is collected by lymphatic capillaries and transported back to the bloodstream. Lym…

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Blood coagulation is the process of forming a clot to prevent excessive bleeding. When a vessel is injured, platelets release thrombokinase. This enzyme converts prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin th…

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In an open circulatory system (e.g., arthropods, molluscs), blood is pumped into open spaces called sinuses, directly bathing organs. In a closed circulatory system (e.g., annelids, chordates), blood …

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Fish have a two-chambered heart (one atrium and one ventricle). It pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills where it gets oxygenated. The oxygenated blood then goes directly to body tissues. After delive…

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Amphibians and reptiles have a three-chambered heart (two atria, one ventricle), leading to incomplete mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood (incomplete double circulation). Mammals have a four-…

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Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice during one complete cycle — once for pulmonary circulation (to lungs) and once for systemic circulation (to body). It ensures efficient ox…